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World History Lecture Nine

2009-03-25T14:05:46Z

Ashleys:

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

As Christianity continued to grow in the 1700s, many around the world came to the same conclusion: they wanted their own country rather than taking orders from a king. But kings resisted these demands for independence by the people, and revolutions became necessary to overthrow kings.

During the 1600s in England, there was some of the worst religious persecution in the history of the world, as Protestants harshly persecuted each other and there was also continuous conflict between Protestants and Catholics. The conflict between Anglicans and Puritans in England was particularly severe, causing many Puritans to flee to New England. Quakers were also persecuted in England, and William Penn founded the state of Pennsylvania in the late 1600s after being persecuted in England for his Quaker faith. In 1688, a “bloodless” revolution known as the “Glorious Revolution” replaced a rare Catholic English King (James II) with a King and Queen who were Anglican (William and Mary).

In the 1700s, all the revolutions were quite bloody, entailing violence and great losses of life and limb. Nearly every region of the world saw violent revolutions. There was the American Revolution, which began with bloodshed in 1775 (Lexington and Concord and the ride of Paul Revere), and then the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and ultimately the conclusion with the Treaty of Paris in 1783. There were also many other revolutions, including ones in Mexico, Haiti, South America, China and France. We will learn about all of them here, spending most of our time on the French Revolution.

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe: Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon. He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant overall mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world. Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleonic complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight. But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime. Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt. Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government. These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences. Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the former name for Germany), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria. Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great. Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I. Catherine the Great also gave increased power to the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

==Religious Conflict in England==

In the 1600s, the major European countries adhered to the “divine right of kings,” such that the authority of a king came from God. But in England, unlike the countries in continental Europe, there was a constitutional monarchy that required the king to obey the law and share power with the Parliament. In all the other countries the king (or queen) simply did what he wanted.

The sharing of power between the King of England and the Parliament caused continual conflict, some of it religious in nature. The religious disagreements between the Church of England, the Puritans, the Quakers and other Christian faiths caused many to flee to the new colonies in America to establish religious communities free from persecution in England. But note that many of these Christian denominations, such as the Puritans, did not believe in religious freedom for others any more than the Church of England did.

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I. Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history. She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments: she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588. A Protestant who was formally excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day. Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs. After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I. The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign. This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come. But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between King Charles I and Parliament. Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right. This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways. The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime. The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition, and Charles refused to sign it.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland. This led to the religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious. King Charles was then tried and publicly executed. This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69). He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet Histrio Mastix (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria. Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term a “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.) The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him). But he continued to write pamphlets and thus in 1637 he was further punished by removing the remainder of his ears. In 1640, the Long Parliament limited the absolute power of the monarch and freed Prynne, and he was even elected to Parliament himself in 1648. But in December 1648 the English army (led by the Puritan Colonel Thomas Pride) led a coup that excluded more than 100 members of Parliament who sought to settle with Charles I, including the Puritan Prynne, from the House of Commons. That was known as “Pride’s Purge.” A “rump” Parliament then assembled without these excluded members, and this allowed the execution of Charles I. It is easy to see why some Puritans decided to come to America during this time rather than stay in England.

After defeating Charles I, Oliver Cromwell initially founded the “Commonwealth” (1649-53), which was a republican form of government. But like other future revolutionaries, Cromwell then decided simply to rule as a military dictator, which he did until his death in 1658. Most revolutions simply replace one form of dictatorship with another. The shining exception was the American Revolution, as its leader (George Washington) voluntarily gave up his power for the good of the people.

To this day Cromwell is loved by many in England, but hated by others. The Irish, which suffered from his brutality in Ireland, vilify Cromwell. Royalists, or those who love the English monarchy, also hated Cromwell and even dug up his corpse to behead him once the monarchy regained power. The anger against Cromwell was so great that his severed head was displayed outside Westminster Abbey for over 20 years, from 1661 to 1685, and the remainder of his corpse thrown into a disgraceful pit.

After Cromwell’s death, the older son of Charles I took the throne as Charles II and instituted the Restoration (of the monarchy) in 1659. He ruled until his death in 1685, during which he established the rights of prisoners not to be held unless there was a good reason. This was the Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 1679, which became a basic right under the U.S. Constitution, Article One, Section Nine (“The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.”). Also during the reign of Charles II the first political parties developed, known as the Whigs (liberals) and Tories (conservatives). Today those same political parties exist in England, although the Whigs are now the Labour Party (note the English spelling of “labor”, which represents common or union workers).

James II, a Catholic, was the second son of Charles I and succeeded Charles II to the throne. The Catholic-Anglican conflict had been ongoing for over a hundred years, and many Protestants were unhappy about having a Catholic rule the country. Even now in England there is a law prohibiting a Catholic from serving in a top position. In 1688, the Protestants in Parliament asked Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, to rule England (and Scotland) along with her Protestant husband William of Orange. James II was forced to flee to France, where he died in exile in 1701.

This transfer in power in early 1689 became known as the “Glorious Revolution,” or the bloodless revolt. But while the ouster of James II itself was bloodless, it was incited in part by the execution of 300 persons (and sale into slavery of another 800) who participated in the 1685 revolt against James II known as (Duke) Monmouth’s Rebellion.

William and Mary were the only “joint sovereigns” in British history such that each had equal power, because usually the spouse of a monarch has no power and serves merely as a “consort”. The College of William and Mary in Virginia, founded by this king and queen in 1693, is the second oldest college in America. Mary died in 1694, and William then ruled alone until 1702, when he died.
[[Image:UK map.jpg|right|200px]]
William and Mary agreed in 1689 to a new Bill of Rights proposed by Parliament, which prevented a monarch from:

# denying citizens the right to petition (complaint to) the monarch
# infringing on freedom of speech in Parliament
# suspending a law of Parliament
# imposing taxes without the consent of Parliament.

Today the term “Great Britain” means England, Scotland and Wales, which share the same large island (see right). It is “Great" to distinguish it from France's Brittania Minor (more simply, “Brittany”).

The term “United Kingdom” refers to the combination (union) of “Great Britain” and “Northern Ireland,” which is part of the island of Ireland. There is violent conflict to this day between Protestants and Catholics as to whether Northern Ireland should be part of the separate nation of the (Catholic) Ireland (they share the same island) or Great Britain. The (Protestant) United Kingdom formed in response to the movement towards independence by (Catholic) Ireland.

Within Great Britain, the people of Scotland and Wales take offense at being called "English". The Scottish, for example, pride themselves at being different (and superior?) to the English.

The Protestant majority of Northern Ireland, which prefers to remain allied with Great Britain, wishes to be called “British”; the Catholic minority of Northern Ireland, which prefers to be allied with Ireland, prefers to be called “Irish”.

The Protestant versus Catholic feud is increasingly anachronistic; today the most popular name for newborn baby boys in England (and France) is “Muhammad”.

==Age of Revolution==

The Age of Revolution is a general time period when revolutions swept the world to overthrow kings (monarchies) and establish constitutional forms of government. Some historians, focusing on the major revolutions that overthrew monarchies, consider the late 1700s to be the Age of Revolution, including the American (1776-1783) and French Revolutions (1789) and its subsequent Reign of Terror (1793-94). Other historians, seeing continued occurrence of revolutions worldwide after 1800, describe the period as being from 1776 to 1848, a year in which there were many unsuccessful revolutions and Karl Marx wrote the inspiration for future revolutions, The Communist Manifesto.

A “revolution” is itself a controversial idea, and has little or no basis in Christianity. The ancient Greeks were entirely opposed to the idea of a revolution, and thought it occurred only when the morality and religious values of a society had decayed. In the Middle Ages, revolution was unknown and armed revolt against one’s society was unacceptable. Religious authority was strong and social order was desired. Armed revolt by Christians against their government leaders did not occur in ancient Rome, when the emperors were as cruel as possible, and such revolts remained rare or non-existent for over 1600 years. It was not until the early 1700s that the English language developed the word “revolution” to mean an armed overthrow of a government.

Historians credit Machiavelli as being the first thinker to lay the intellectual foundation for revolutions, though he never used the term. His work did indicate the need for change in the structure of government, and he expressed concern with maintaining stability. The English poet and writer John Milton (1608-74) was the first to express the desirability of revolution to overthrow a tyrant or abusive dictator, and thereby achieve freedom for the people. Milton’s view differed from Englishman Thomas Hobbes, who wrote in the Leviathan (1651) that people were inherently greedy and cruel, and that we needed an absolute monarchy to restrain our worst desires.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) later wrote that revolution was a “natural” step towards mankind reaching a higher ethical value system. The American and French Revolutions drew upon Kant’s ideas.

Subsequently another German philosopher, G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831), insisted that revolutions were essential to human destiny, and that revolutionary leaders were heroes in promoting reform. Karl Marx, the most influential supporter of revolutions in world history, then drew upon Hegel’s ideas in order to promote future communist revolutions.

Revolutions continue even to this day. The most famous revolution in recent history was the Islamic Shiite revolution that overthrew the Shah of Iran and took control of that country in 1979, and holding American diplomats hostage for about a year.

===America===

The American Revolution, beginning with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was led by a small percentage of the colonists. Amazingly, there were just as many Loyalists (pro-British) as Patriots (pro-revolutionaries). Like the French Revolution discussed below, the American Revolution was instigated by an educated middle class. The ideas were powerful in the Declaration of Independence, which 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson drafted with other Founders using the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]], which had been drafted by Founder George Mason. Invoking the authority of God frequently throughout the document, the Declaration contains the most striking legal statement of all time: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.” The phrase “that all men are created equal” was original to the Declaration of Independence and was quoted frequently by Abraham Lincoln (e.g., in his Gettysburg Address) and by other future Americans.

The Declaration of Independence drew upon Christianity and the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke. In his famous work “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), Locke declared that all men have the natural (inalienable) rights of “life, liberty and estate (property).” Adam Smith, the great economist, modified this to be “life, liberty and the pursuit of property.” Notably the Declaration of Independence does not emphasize a right to pursue property, however, instead speaking in favor of pursuit of “happiness”.

Locke also wrote that government exists to defend our natural rights, and when government fails to do so then it may be rightfully overthrown. Locke built on the concept of a “social contract” first proposed by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who felt that government was a contract by which people gave up some rights to government to obtain protection and order in return. When this social contract is violated by government, as when it fails to defend our natural rights, then Locke felt that rejecting the authority of government was justified. This logic was embraced by the Declaration of Independence by declaring that the colonies were right to break away from the King of England because he failed to uphold the social contract. The Declaration said: “That to secure these [inalienable] rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government ….” And the Patriots did “abolish” English rule here, leading to the creation of the United States.

===France===

The French Revolution is the most famous in all of world history. It started out with the hope and promise of the American Revolution, but ended up with nearly everyone being executed by the guillotine. There was a “Reign of Terror” which was exactly what it name implies: terrifying chaos when anyone and everyone could be killed at any time, for any reason or no reason at all.

In its Old Regime prior to the revolution, France had three tiers or levels in its social system: the First, Second and Third Estates. The First Estate was only 1% of the population but it controlled 10% of the land. This was the clergy and they paid no taxes. To be fair, however, much of this land was church land made available to the public, and clergy do not pay any taxes today in the United States either. The Second Estate was only about 2% of the population but they controlled 20% of the land. This was the landed nobility, and they paid very little in taxes. The Third Estate was everyone else: the peasants, the merchants and the laborers, and they were badly overtaxed by the monarch, King Louis XVI. Recall that taxes were a major cause of the American Revolution also.

The leaders of the Third Estate were the middle class, also known as the bourgeoisie. They did better than the peasants and worked as merchants or skilled artisans. They were educated and trained in many of the ideas of the Enlightenment, most notably Jean Jacques Rousseau. His work “The Social Contract” (1762) supported a direct democracy rather than the republican form of government adopted in America. The “social contract” was a contract among free people to create government. Rousseau disapproved of titles like nobility, and demanded complete equality between all people.

France was near bankruptcy in 1789 due to King Louis XVI’s extravagance and high taxes, which discouraged work. The Second Estate then made a big mistake in demanding a meeting of the Estates-General, which was a French Assembly that had not met in 175 years. Each Estate had one vote in the Assembly, such that the First and Second Estates could always outvote the Third Estate. That was acceptable in the early 1600s, but the Third Estate would not allow this in 1789 after learning the Enlightenment ideas. They wanted a system of one vote per delegate, which would have given the Third Estate the same number of votes as the First and Second Estate combined.

When the First and Second Estates refused this request by the Third Estate, the Third Estate left and formed a new National Assembly. When the Third Estate was locked out of its meeting place, it met on a tennis court and took the “Tennis Court Oath” to draft a new French constitution.

Chaos and violence soon hit the streets. On July 14, 1789 (“Bastille Day”), French peasants stormed the large Paris prison known as Bastille, freeing the inmates. The Great Fear or panic resulted, as riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes. Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were forced from their home in Versailles by a riot of women over the high price of bread. In a classic example of class warfare that can be seen even today, people accused the privileged Antoinette of responding unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!” But cake was a sensible substitute for bread in times of need, and it is doubtful Antoinette ever said that anyway.

By then the French Revolution was in full swing. The National Assembly approved the “Declaration of the Rights of Man,” which combined ideas of the American Declaration of Independence with some Enlightenment concepts. The result of this combination was a liberal document guaranteeing more to the people than a government could or should provide:<ref>http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html</ref>

:Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.” Unlike the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.” Some of the French declarations seem silly, like this one: “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.” What is the meaning of a freedom if it is arbitrarily limited by undefined “abuses of this freedom”?

In 1791, a French journalist named Olympe de Gouges proposed a “Declaration of the Rights of Woman,” but the National Assembly rejected her proposal. She, like many other leaders of that time, was eventually executed by guillotine.

The French National Assembly established a constitutional monarchy and, in 1791, adopted a new constitution that created a Legislative Assembly. Three factions quickly formed in the new Legislative Assembly, known as the radicals (liberals), moderates (centrists) and conservatives, similar to those political movements today in the United States. The three factions sat in different sections of the large assembly hall, with the radicals (liberals) sitting on the left, the moderates sitting in the center, and the conservatives sitting on the right. That gave rise to the left-center-right terminology that we still use today in the United States to describe these three political groups.

Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria were at war with one another, and Prussia offered to help the French King Louis XVI and his royal family. In response, in August 1792, the French revolutionaries imprisoned the king and his family.

A new National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly and abolished the monarchy in order to establish a republic in 1792, which gave all adult males the right to vote. A radical political group called the Jacobins gained power, led by Georges Danton and Jean Paul Marat. Under the influence of the Jacobins, the National Convention used the guillotine to execute Louis XVI in January 1793. By this time many countries, including Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Prussia and Austria, had formed the First Coalition to prevent the violence in France from spreading outside. The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army. Historians claim that women were drafted too, but that is a dubious claim.

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the Reign of Terror. Maximilian Robespierre, head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette. In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders Georges Danton (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and Jean-Paul Marat (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub. Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory. The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named Napoleon to lead the French army. The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its dictator, in November 1799.

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them. Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy. But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning (including Thomas Jefferson) were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror. Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards Christianity that continues to this day in France. Islam has recently risen in power there.

===Napoleon’s Empire===

Napoleon was smart, ambitious, and a tremendous leader. Quickly, by 1802, Napoleon had signed peace treaties with all his major enemies in the Second Coalition against France, including Great Britain, Russia and Austria. He then improved France immensely with reformed taxation, better finance through use of a national bank, a successful system of laws known as the Napoleonic Code, and even a public school system. But all was not for the better. Napoleon repealed a ban on slavery in the French Caribbean, restricted freedom of speech and the press, and did not allow women to have the same property rights as men.

Napoleon needed cash to fight a new Third Coalition against him, and also to pay for a failed attempt to quell a rebellion against France in the Caribbean Saint Dominigue (Haiti). To raise cash, Napoleon sold the massive territory of Louisiana, which had already implemented the Napoleonic Code and where it is still used to this day in the State of Louisiana, to the United States for a few million dollars in 1803. Then, in 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor of France and proceeded to conquer or acquire as much territory in Europe as possible. He did very well until he failed to conquer Great Britain, which had a superior navy that defeated Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. English Admiral Horatio Nelson was the hero of that battle.

But Napoleon continued to win victories on continental Europe, and by 1812 his empire included all of it except Sweden, Portugal and, near Asia, the Ottoman empire. Then came Napoleon’s undoing: his invasion of Russia in the winter of 1812. It is virtually impossible to conquer Russia with a wintertime invasion, because the weather is frightfully cold and the Russian people are extremely resilient, willing to live on rats rather than surrender. The German Adolf Hitler failed in a similar mistake in invading Russia during the wintertime in World War II.

Napoleon made other strategic mistakes also. His blockade against Great Britain in 1806, known as the Continental System, did not help him. His Peninsular War against Spain from 1808 to 1813 was hurtful also.

By 1813 Napoleon’s army was weak enough for the Fourth Coalition to defeat it, at the [[Battle of Leipzig]]. By 1814 Napoleon could see that he would have to give up his throne, and his opponents sent him off to an island in Mediterranean known as Elba. Napoleon remained banished there for a year, but escaped in March 1815 to grab power over France again for “The Hundred Days.” But in June 1815, the Prussia and Great Britain defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, and this time Napoleon was shipped to the distant island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821. In a fascinating historical investigation about ten years ago, scientists analyzed hair samples from Napoleon’s corpse and found arsenic. This led the scientists to conclude that Napoleon died from poisoning. But then other scientists said that the arsenic was from hair tonic, not poisoning, and that no one had murdered Napoleon after all.

===Congress of Vienna===

In the aftermath of Napoleon’s defeat, European nations convened in Vienna, Austria to hold the “Congress of Vienna.” Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Russia and France were all there. Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was chairman of the proceeding, proposed establishing a “balance of power” among rival nations to ensure that no single nation could threaten the others. Metternich established a set of alliances between nations which required them to assist others if war broke out. This would protect all the nations against revolution or invasion, as the balance of power would shift in response to such threats. These alliances were called the '''Concert of Europe'''.

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done. Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future. There were also other goals for this meeting. Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution. In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

In addition to the Concert of Europe described above, the Congress also adopted these specific changes to the map of Europe:

# Gave legitimacy to the monarchies (royal families)
# Recognized Switzerland as an independent nation
# Required France to return territories conquered by Napoleon
# Created the German Confederation
# Created the Kingdom of the Netherlands
# Allowed the Kingdom of Sardinia to include Genoa

The impact of the new balance of power, the legitimacy of the monarchies and the specific nation-building was enormous throughout the West. A lasting peace in Europe resulted. France lost power, while Great Britain and Prussia gained power. Latin American governments established as colonies of European powers felt confident to declare their independence. Finally, and perhaps most of all, nationalism grew in Europe. A century later, this nationalism would result in the worst wars in the history of the world.

==Other Revolutions==

There were many revolutions in addition to the American and French Revolutions, as the world threw off the yoke of monarchs and replaced them with more representative governments. The most successful of these was the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) in Latin America. Revolutions in South America from 1810 to 1824 did bring independence from Spain, but failed to lead to prosperity in South America. Mexico won its independence from Spain in a Mexican Revolution that lasted from 1810 to 1821. A century later, from 1910 to 1919, the Mexican Revolution led to a constitution that advanced land reform, education and workers’ rights; historians also credit it for bringing some rights to women.

===Haiti===

The first Spanish colony in the New World was the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, which was one of Christopher Columbus’s first discoveries. Today Hispaniola has two countries separated by mountains: its eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, while its western one-third is Haiti. The Dominican Republic has produced many great baseball players, including Albert Pujols, Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, Jose Reyes and Manny Ramirez.

In the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain ceded control of the western third of Hispaniola to France, which established a colony named Saint Dominique (also spelled as “Saint-Domingue”). A hundred years later, this colony (now Haiti) became famous for several reasons: (1) it became the first independent black republic, (2) it was the only nation formed based on a successful slave revolt, and (3) it was the second colony after the United States to declare its independence in the New World, on Jan. 1, 1804. In 2004, Haiti also had a revolution, or uprising.

The Haitian Revolution began when an African priest sparked an uprising by 100,000 slaves, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in 1791. French troops eventually arrived in 1802 to suppress the revolution, and tricked L’Ouverture into boarding a French ship where he thought he would be able to sign a peace treaty granting the colony independence from France. Instead he was captured and returned to France, where he died in 1803 in a French prison (France has always had the worst prison conditions in Europe). But Dessalines, a general under L’Ouverture, fought on for freedom on the island, and Haiti successfully declared its independence on Jan. 1, 1804.

Today American missionaries and charity workers, including several who have been associated with our classes, have a close relationship with the Haiti people.

===South America===

In the Spanish colonies, creoles (pronounced KREE-oles, and people born in the colonies to European parents) were leading revolutions to gain independence from their Spanish rulers. Creole Generals Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led Venezuela, Ecuador, and Argentina to independence. Bernardo O’Higgins led Chile to freedom in 1818 and is viewed as a hero to this day there. Bolivar freed other colonies from Spanish rule at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, and attempted to establish the unified nations of “Gran Colombia” and “United Provinces of Central America”, but both collapsed after only a few years.

Brazil won its independence in a peaceful manner. It was a colony of Portugal, and when Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal in 1807, the family of the Portuguese monarch fled to Brazil. Prince John, the future King John VI, declared the large Brazilian capital of Rio de Janeiro to be the capital of both Brazil and Portugal. In 1822, after the defeat of Napoleon and the return of King John VI to Portugal, the creoles (people of European descent born in the colonies) demanded independence for Brazil. King John declared his son Dom Pedro as ruler of the newly independent Brazil. Brazil was thereby the only Latin American country to be ruled by a king after it gained its independence.

In 1810 in Mexico, a war for independence was initiated by Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo from Dolores, who rallied mestizos (people having both Indian and European ancestors) in a rebellion against Spain. This revolt was memorable because it was the first time a rebellion was led in South America by the mestizos and not by the creoles. Led by Hidalgo, the mestizos marched to Mexico City, but were defeated in 1811 by the Spanish and the creoles. Hidalgo was executed in 1811 and then succeeded by Father José Maria Morelos, who also lost to the creoles, led by Augustin de Iturbide in 1815. The struggle ended in 1821, when Mexico successfully gained independence from Spain.

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state. He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain. During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico. Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was followed by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages. Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy. Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917. Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata. Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza. Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza. He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed. These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system. In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized. It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the next century. The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

===China===

The movements towards revolution and nationalism spread to China. [[Sun Yixian]] was just one of the many Chinese inspired by the unified nations arising in Europe. A rebellion arose in 1911, which ended the rules of the Qing (also known as Manchu) dynasty. Confucianism was rejected by the reformers, who viewed it as old-fashioned, and reforms were sought to give more rights to workers and the poor. The revolutions did not resolve much, but marked the beginning of a period of strife and unrest for China in the early 1900s, which would lead to its establishment as a Communist nation in later decades.

==Revolutionary Art and Literature==

In the early 1800s, art (including music) and literature underwent “revolutions” similar to the political ones. Romanticism was the major artistic movement, reflecting an emphasis on thoughts, feelings and nature. Lord Byron was a leading romanticist who fought for the independence of Greece. This emphasis on feelings mirrored a political romanticism that promoted democracy and the needs of the “common man” or everyday person.

In music, the greatest composer in the history of the world burst onto the scene in the early 1800s: Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827). He revolutionized instrumental music and took it to new heights never before thought possible. His achievement was all the more remarkable because he became totally deaf before the age of 40, and before he composed his greatest works. A German like most great composers, Beethoven’s works capture an intensity and expressive emotion that surpassed even vocal music. It was Beethoven’s great work that led an English critic to declare, “All arts aspire to the condition of music.”
[[Image:Monet Impressionsunrise.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Impression Sunrise]]
In the late 1800s, impressionism moved [[painting]] further away from its traditions. It began in France and continued into the 1900s. The chief feature of impressionism was to paint the transient effects of color and light, and attempt to capture a fleeting image or “impression”. The feeling of an image was emphasized more than the detail (see right). Major impressionistic painters included Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir and Paul Cezanne. Manet, Monet, Renoir and others began emphasizing color and lighting as early as the late 1860s. They often painted landscapes, and insisted on remaining outdoors to until completion of the work, unlike predecessors who preferred to complete such work in the studio. Renoir, for example, is known for brilliance of color, intimate charm in his subjects, and a harmony of his lines.

Though the impressionistic movement in painting dissolved by the mid-1880s, it changed the path of art forever in its rejection of traditional Western approaches to subject matter. The artist Vincent van Gogh, for example, was greatly influenced by the impressionists. There was a musical impressionism also, which emphasized mood and understatement and reflected its composers’ view that pure sound (like color) is an end to itself.

Realism was the new form of literature that told the dark side of the industrial revolution: the overcrowded, filthy conditions in which many workers struggled.

[[Category:World History lectures]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:World History Lecture 09}}

World History Lecture Nine

2009-03-25T14:05:14Z

Ashleys: /* France */

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

As Christianity continued to grow in the 1700s, many around the world came to the same conclusion: they wanted their own country rather than taking orders from a king. But kings resisted these demands for independence by the people, and revolutions became necessary to overthrow kings.

In the 1600s in England, there was some of the worst religious persecution in the history of the world, as Protestants harshly persecuted each other and there was also continuous conflict between Protestants and Catholics. The conflict between Anglicans and Puritans in England was particularly severe, causing many Puritans to flee to New England. Quakers were also persecuted in England, and William Penn founded the state of Pennsylvania in the late 1600s after being persecuted in England for his Quaker faith. In 1688, a “bloodless” revolution known as the “Glorious Revolution” replaced a rare Catholic English King (James II) with a King and Queen who were Anglican (William and Mary).

In the 1700s, all the revolutions were quite bloody, entailing violence and great losses of life and limb. Nearly every region of the world saw violent revolutions. There was the American Revolution, which began with bloodshed in 1775 (Lexington and Concord and the ride of Paul Revere), and then the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and ultimately the conclusion with the Treaty of Paris in 1783. There were also many other revolutions, including ones in Mexico, Haiti, South America, China and France. We will learn about all of them here, spending most of our time on the French Revolution.

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe: Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon. He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant overall mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world. Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleonic complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight. But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime. Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt. Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government. These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences. Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the former name for Germany), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria. Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great. Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I. Catherine the Great also gave increased power to the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

==Religious Conflict in England==

In the 1600s, the major European countries adhered to the “divine right of kings,” such that the authority of a king came from God. But in England, unlike the countries in continental Europe, there was a constitutional monarchy that required the king to obey the law and share power with the Parliament. In all the other countries the king (or queen) simply did what he wanted.

The sharing of power between the King of England and the Parliament caused continual conflict, some of it religious in nature. The religious disagreements between the Church of England, the Puritans, the Quakers and other Christian faiths caused many to flee to the new colonies in America to establish religious communities free from persecution in England. But note that many of these Christian denominations, such as the Puritans, did not believe in religious freedom for others any more than the Church of England did.

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I. Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history. She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments: she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588. A Protestant who was formally excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day. Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs. After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I. The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign. This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come. But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between King Charles I and Parliament. Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right. This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways. The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime. The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition, and Charles refused to sign it.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland. This led to the religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious. King Charles was then tried and publicly executed. This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69). He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet Histrio Mastix (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria. Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term a “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.) The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him). But he continued to write pamphlets and thus in 1637 he was further punished by removing the remainder of his ears. In 1640, the Long Parliament limited the absolute power of the monarch and freed Prynne, and he was even elected to Parliament himself in 1648. But in December 1648 the English army (led by the Puritan Colonel Thomas Pride) led a coup that excluded more than 100 members of Parliament who sought to settle with Charles I, including the Puritan Prynne, from the House of Commons. That was known as “Pride’s Purge.” A “rump” Parliament then assembled without these excluded members, and this allowed the execution of Charles I. It is easy to see why some Puritans decided to come to America during this time rather than stay in England.

After defeating Charles I, Oliver Cromwell initially founded the “Commonwealth” (1649-53), which was a republican form of government. But like other future revolutionaries, Cromwell then decided simply to rule as a military dictator, which he did until his death in 1658. Most revolutions simply replace one form of dictatorship with another. The shining exception was the American Revolution, as its leader (George Washington) voluntarily gave up his power for the good of the people.

To this day Cromwell is loved by many in England, but hated by others. The Irish, which suffered from his brutality in Ireland, vilify Cromwell. Royalists, or those who love the English monarchy, also hated Cromwell and even dug up his corpse to behead him once the monarchy regained power. The anger against Cromwell was so great that his severed head was displayed outside Westminster Abbey for over 20 years, from 1661 to 1685, and the remainder of his corpse thrown into a disgraceful pit.

After Cromwell’s death, the older son of Charles I took the throne as Charles II and instituted the Restoration (of the monarchy) in 1659. He ruled until his death in 1685, during which he established the rights of prisoners not to be held unless there was a good reason. This was the Habeas Corpus Act, passed in 1679, which became a basic right under the U.S. Constitution, Article One, Section Nine (“The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.”). Also during the reign of Charles II the first political parties developed, known as the Whigs (liberals) and Tories (conservatives). Today those same political parties exist in England, although the Whigs are now the Labour Party (note the English spelling of “labor”, which represents common or union workers).

James II, a Catholic, was the second son of Charles I and succeeded Charles II to the throne. The Catholic-Anglican conflict had been ongoing for over a hundred years, and many Protestants were unhappy about having a Catholic rule the country. Even now in England there is a law prohibiting a Catholic from serving in a top position. In 1688, the Protestants in Parliament asked Mary, the Protestant daughter of James II, to rule England (and Scotland) along with her Protestant husband William of Orange. James II was forced to flee to France, where he died in exile in 1701.

This transfer in power in early 1689 became known as the “Glorious Revolution,” or the bloodless revolt. But while the ouster of James II itself was bloodless, it was incited in part by the execution of 300 persons (and sale into slavery of another 800) who participated in the 1685 revolt against James II known as (Duke) Monmouth’s Rebellion.

William and Mary were the only “joint sovereigns” in British history such that each had equal power, because usually the spouse of a monarch has no power and serves merely as a “consort”. The College of William and Mary in Virginia, founded by this king and queen in 1693, is the second oldest college in America. Mary died in 1694, and William then ruled alone until 1702, when he died.
[[Image:UK map.jpg|right|200px]]
William and Mary agreed in 1689 to a new Bill of Rights proposed by Parliament, which prevented a monarch from:

# denying citizens the right to petition (complaint to) the monarch
# infringing on freedom of speech in Parliament
# suspending a law of Parliament
# imposing taxes without the consent of Parliament.

Today the term “Great Britain” means England, Scotland and Wales, which share the same large island (see right). It is “Great" to distinguish it from France's Brittania Minor (more simply, “Brittany”).

The term “United Kingdom” refers to the combination (union) of “Great Britain” and “Northern Ireland,” which is part of the island of Ireland. There is violent conflict to this day between Protestants and Catholics as to whether Northern Ireland should be part of the separate nation of the (Catholic) Ireland (they share the same island) or Great Britain. The (Protestant) United Kingdom formed in response to the movement towards independence by (Catholic) Ireland.

Within Great Britain, the people of Scotland and Wales take offense at being called "English". The Scottish, for example, pride themselves at being different (and superior?) to the English.

The Protestant majority of Northern Ireland, which prefers to remain allied with Great Britain, wishes to be called “British”; the Catholic minority of Northern Ireland, which prefers to be allied with Ireland, prefers to be called “Irish”.

The Protestant versus Catholic feud is increasingly anachronistic; today the most popular name for newborn baby boys in England (and France) is “Muhammad”.

==Age of Revolution==

The Age of Revolution is a general time period when revolutions swept the world to overthrow kings (monarchies) and establish constitutional forms of government. Some historians, focusing on the major revolutions that overthrew monarchies, consider the late 1700s to be the Age of Revolution, including the American (1776-1783) and French Revolutions (1789) and its subsequent Reign of Terror (1793-94). Other historians, seeing continued occurrence of revolutions worldwide after 1800, describe the period as being from 1776 to 1848, a year in which there were many unsuccessful revolutions and Karl Marx wrote the inspiration for future revolutions, The Communist Manifesto.

A “revolution” is itself a controversial idea, and has little or no basis in Christianity. The ancient Greeks were entirely opposed to the idea of a revolution, and thought it occurred only when the morality and religious values of a society had decayed. In the Middle Ages, revolution was unknown and armed revolt against one’s society was unacceptable. Religious authority was strong and social order was desired. Armed revolt by Christians against their government leaders did not occur in ancient Rome, when the emperors were as cruel as possible, and such revolts remained rare or non-existent for over 1600 years. It was not until the early 1700s that the English language developed the word “revolution” to mean an armed overthrow of a government.

Historians credit Machiavelli as being the first thinker to lay the intellectual foundation for revolutions, though he never used the term. His work did indicate the need for change in the structure of government, and he expressed concern with maintaining stability. The English poet and writer John Milton (1608-74) was the first to express the desirability of revolution to overthrow a tyrant or abusive dictator, and thereby achieve freedom for the people. Milton’s view differed from Englishman Thomas Hobbes, who wrote in the Leviathan (1651) that people were inherently greedy and cruel, and that we needed an absolute monarchy to restrain our worst desires.

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) later wrote that revolution was a “natural” step towards mankind reaching a higher ethical value system. The American and French Revolutions drew upon Kant’s ideas.

Subsequently another German philosopher, G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831), insisted that revolutions were essential to human destiny, and that revolutionary leaders were heroes in promoting reform. Karl Marx, the most influential supporter of revolutions in world history, then drew upon Hegel’s ideas in order to promote future communist revolutions.

Revolutions continue even to this day. The most famous revolution in recent history was the Islamic Shiite revolution that overthrew the Shah of Iran and took control of that country in 1979, and holding American diplomats hostage for about a year.

===America===

The American Revolution, beginning with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was led by a small percentage of the colonists. Amazingly, there were just as many Loyalists (pro-British) as Patriots (pro-revolutionaries). Like the French Revolution discussed below, the American Revolution was instigated by an educated middle class. The ideas were powerful in the Declaration of Independence, which 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson drafted with other Founders using the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]], which had been drafted by Founder George Mason. Invoking the authority of God frequently throughout the document, the Declaration contains the most striking legal statement of all time: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.” The phrase “that all men are created equal” was original to the Declaration of Independence and was quoted frequently by Abraham Lincoln (e.g., in his Gettysburg Address) and by other future Americans.

The Declaration of Independence drew upon Christianity and the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke. In his famous work “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), Locke declared that all men have the natural (inalienable) rights of “life, liberty and estate (property).” Adam Smith, the great economist, modified this to be “life, liberty and the pursuit of property.” Notably the Declaration of Independence does not emphasize a right to pursue property, however, instead speaking in favor of pursuit of “happiness”.

Locke also wrote that government exists to defend our natural rights, and when government fails to do so then it may be rightfully overthrown. Locke built on the concept of a “social contract” first proposed by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who felt that government was a contract by which people gave up some rights to government to obtain protection and order in return. When this social contract is violated by government, as when it fails to defend our natural rights, then Locke felt that rejecting the authority of government was justified. This logic was embraced by the Declaration of Independence by declaring that the colonies were right to break away from the King of England because he failed to uphold the social contract. The Declaration said: “That to secure these [inalienable] rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government ….” And the Patriots did “abolish” English rule here, leading to the creation of the United States.

===France===

The French Revolution is the most famous in all of world history. It started out with the hope and promise of the American Revolution, but ended up with nearly everyone being executed by the guillotine. There was a “Reign of Terror” which was exactly what it name implies: terrifying chaos when anyone and everyone could be killed at any time, for any reason or no reason at all.

In its Old Regime prior to the revolution, France had three tiers or levels in its social system: the First, Second and Third Estates. The First Estate was only 1% of the population but it controlled 10% of the land. This was the clergy and they paid no taxes. To be fair, however, much of this land was church land made available to the public, and clergy do not pay any taxes today in the United States either. The Second Estate was only about 2% of the population but they controlled 20% of the land. This was the landed nobility, and they paid very little in taxes. The Third Estate was everyone else: the peasants, the merchants and the laborers, and they were badly overtaxed by the monarch, King Louis XVI. Recall that taxes were a major cause of the American Revolution also.

The leaders of the Third Estate were the middle class, also known as the bourgeoisie. They did better than the peasants and worked as merchants or skilled artisans. They were educated and trained in many of the ideas of the Enlightenment, most notably Jean Jacques Rousseau. His work “The Social Contract” (1762) supported a direct democracy rather than the republican form of government adopted in America. The “social contract” was a contract among free people to create government. Rousseau disapproved of titles like nobility, and demanded complete equality between all people.

France was near bankruptcy in 1789 due to King Louis XVI’s extravagance and high taxes, which discouraged work. The Second Estate then made a big mistake in demanding a meeting of the Estates-General, which was a French Assembly that had not met in 175 years. Each Estate had one vote in the Assembly, such that the First and Second Estates could always outvote the Third Estate. That was acceptable in the early 1600s, but the Third Estate would not allow this in 1789 after learning the Enlightenment ideas. They wanted a system of one vote per delegate, which would have given the Third Estate the same number of votes as the First and Second Estate combined.

When the First and Second Estates refused this request by the Third Estate, the Third Estate left and formed a new National Assembly. When the Third Estate was locked out of its meeting place, it met on a tennis court and took the “Tennis Court Oath” to draft a new French constitution.

Chaos and violence soon hit the streets. On July 14, 1789 (“Bastille Day”), French peasants stormed the large Paris prison known as Bastille, freeing the inmates. The Great Fear or panic resulted, as riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes. Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were forced from their home in Versailles by a riot of women over the high price of bread. In a classic example of class warfare that can be seen even today, people accused the privileged Antoinette of responding unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!” But cake was a sensible substitute for bread in times of need, and it is doubtful Antoinette ever said that anyway.

By then the French Revolution was in full swing. The National Assembly approved the “Declaration of the Rights of Man,” which combined ideas of the American Declaration of Independence with some Enlightenment concepts. The result of this combination was a liberal document guaranteeing more to the people than a government could or should provide:<ref>http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html</ref>

:Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.” Unlike the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.” Some of the French declarations seem silly, like this one: “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.” What is the meaning of a freedom if it is arbitrarily limited by undefined “abuses of this freedom”?

In 1791, a French journalist named Olympe de Gouges proposed a “Declaration of the Rights of Woman,” but the National Assembly rejected her proposal. She, like many other leaders of that time, was eventually executed by guillotine.

The French National Assembly established a constitutional monarchy and, in 1791, adopted a new constitution that created a Legislative Assembly. Three factions quickly formed in the new Legislative Assembly, known as the radicals (liberals), moderates (centrists) and conservatives, similar to those political movements today in the United States. The three factions sat in different sections of the large assembly hall, with the radicals (liberals) sitting on the left, the moderates sitting in the center, and the conservatives sitting on the right. That gave rise to the left-center-right terminology that we still use today in the United States to describe these three political groups.

Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria were at war with one another, and Prussia offered to help the French King Louis XVI and his royal family. In response, in August 1792, the French revolutionaries imprisoned the king and his family.

A new National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly and abolished the monarchy in order to establish a republic in 1792, which gave all adult males the right to vote. A radical political group called the Jacobins gained power, led by Georges Danton and Jean Paul Marat. Under the influence of the Jacobins, the National Convention used the guillotine to execute Louis XVI in January 1793. By this time many countries, including Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Prussia and Austria, had formed the First Coalition to prevent the violence in France from spreading outside. The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army. Historians claim that women were drafted too, but that is a dubious claim.

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the Reign of Terror. Maximilian Robespierre, head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette. In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders Georges Danton (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and Jean-Paul Marat (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub. Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory. The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named Napoleon to lead the French army. The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its dictator, in November 1799.

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them. Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy. But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning (including Thomas Jefferson) were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror. Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards Christianity that continues to this day in France. Islam has recently risen in power there.

===Napoleon’s Empire===

Napoleon was smart, ambitious, and a tremendous leader. Quickly, by 1802, Napoleon had signed peace treaties with all his major enemies in the Second Coalition against France, including Great Britain, Russia and Austria. He then improved France immensely with reformed taxation, better finance through use of a national bank, a successful system of laws known as the Napoleonic Code, and even a public school system. But all was not for the better. Napoleon repealed a ban on slavery in the French Caribbean, restricted freedom of speech and the press, and did not allow women to have the same property rights as men.

Napoleon needed cash to fight a new Third Coalition against him, and also to pay for a failed attempt to quell a rebellion against France in the Caribbean Saint Dominigue (Haiti). To raise cash, Napoleon sold the massive territory of Louisiana, which had already implemented the Napoleonic Code and where it is still used to this day in the State of Louisiana, to the United States for a few million dollars in 1803. Then, in 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor of France and proceeded to conquer or acquire as much territory in Europe as possible. He did very well until he failed to conquer Great Britain, which had a superior navy that defeated Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. English Admiral Horatio Nelson was the hero of that battle.

But Napoleon continued to win victories on continental Europe, and by 1812 his empire included all of it except Sweden, Portugal and, near Asia, the Ottoman empire. Then came Napoleon’s undoing: his invasion of Russia in the winter of 1812. It is virtually impossible to conquer Russia with a wintertime invasion, because the weather is frightfully cold and the Russian people are extremely resilient, willing to live on rats rather than surrender. The German Adolf Hitler failed in a similar mistake in invading Russia during the wintertime in World War II.

Napoleon made other strategic mistakes also. His blockade against Great Britain in 1806, known as the Continental System, did not help him. His Peninsular War against Spain from 1808 to 1813 was hurtful also.

By 1813 Napoleon’s army was weak enough for the Fourth Coalition to defeat it, at the [[Battle of Leipzig]]. By 1814 Napoleon could see that he would have to give up his throne, and his opponents sent him off to an island in Mediterranean known as Elba. Napoleon remained banished there for a year, but escaped in March 1815 to grab power over France again for “The Hundred Days.” But in June 1815, the Prussia and Great Britain defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, and this time Napoleon was shipped to the distant island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821. In a fascinating historical investigation about ten years ago, scientists analyzed hair samples from Napoleon’s corpse and found arsenic. This led the scientists to conclude that Napoleon died from poisoning. But then other scientists said that the arsenic was from hair tonic, not poisoning, and that no one had murdered Napoleon after all.

===Congress of Vienna===

In the aftermath of Napoleon’s defeat, European nations convened in Vienna, Austria to hold the “Congress of Vienna.” Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Russia and France were all there. Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was chairman of the proceeding, proposed establishing a “balance of power” among rival nations to ensure that no single nation could threaten the others. Metternich established a set of alliances between nations which required them to assist others if war broke out. This would protect all the nations against revolution or invasion, as the balance of power would shift in response to such threats. These alliances were called the '''Concert of Europe'''.

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done. Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future. There were also other goals for this meeting. Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution. In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

In addition to the Concert of Europe described above, the Congress also adopted these specific changes to the map of Europe:

# Gave legitimacy to the monarchies (royal families)
# Recognized Switzerland as an independent nation
# Required France to return territories conquered by Napoleon
# Created the German Confederation
# Created the Kingdom of the Netherlands
# Allowed the Kingdom of Sardinia to include Genoa

The impact of the new balance of power, the legitimacy of the monarchies and the specific nation-building was enormous throughout the West. A lasting peace in Europe resulted. France lost power, while Great Britain and Prussia gained power. Latin American governments established as colonies of European powers felt confident to declare their independence. Finally, and perhaps most of all, nationalism grew in Europe. A century later, this nationalism would result in the worst wars in the history of the world.

==Other Revolutions==

There were many revolutions in addition to the American and French Revolutions, as the world threw off the yoke of monarchs and replaced them with more representative governments. The most successful of these was the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) in Latin America. Revolutions in South America from 1810 to 1824 did bring independence from Spain, but failed to lead to prosperity in South America. Mexico won its independence from Spain in a Mexican Revolution that lasted from 1810 to 1821. A century later, from 1910 to 1919, the Mexican Revolution led to a constitution that advanced land reform, education and workers’ rights; historians also credit it for bringing some rights to women.

===Haiti===

The first Spanish colony in the New World was the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, which was one of Christopher Columbus’s first discoveries. Today Hispaniola has two countries separated by mountains: its eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, while its western one-third is Haiti. The Dominican Republic has produced many great baseball players, including Albert Pujols, Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, Jose Reyes and Manny Ramirez.

In the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain ceded control of the western third of Hispaniola to France, which established a colony named Saint Dominique (also spelled as “Saint-Domingue”). A hundred years later, this colony (now Haiti) became famous for several reasons: (1) it became the first independent black republic, (2) it was the only nation formed based on a successful slave revolt, and (3) it was the second colony after the United States to declare its independence in the New World, on Jan. 1, 1804. In 2004, Haiti also had a revolution, or uprising.

The Haitian Revolution began when an African priest sparked an uprising by 100,000 slaves, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in 1791. French troops eventually arrived in 1802 to suppress the revolution, and tricked L’Ouverture into boarding a French ship where he thought he would be able to sign a peace treaty granting the colony independence from France. Instead he was captured and returned to France, where he died in 1803 in a French prison (France has always had the worst prison conditions in Europe). But Dessalines, a general under L’Ouverture, fought on for freedom on the island, and Haiti successfully declared its independence on Jan. 1, 1804.

Today American missionaries and charity workers, including several who have been associated with our classes, have a close relationship with the Haiti people.

===South America===

In the Spanish colonies, creoles (pronounced KREE-oles, and people born in the colonies to European parents) were leading revolutions to gain independence from their Spanish rulers. Creole Generals Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led Venezuela, Ecuador, and Argentina to independence. Bernardo O’Higgins led Chile to freedom in 1818 and is viewed as a hero to this day there. Bolivar freed other colonies from Spanish rule at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, and attempted to establish the unified nations of “Gran Colombia” and “United Provinces of Central America”, but both collapsed after only a few years.

Brazil won its independence in a peaceful manner. It was a colony of Portugal, and when Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal in 1807, the family of the Portuguese monarch fled to Brazil. Prince John, the future King John VI, declared the large Brazilian capital of Rio de Janeiro to be the capital of both Brazil and Portugal. In 1822, after the defeat of Napoleon and the return of King John VI to Portugal, the creoles (people of European descent born in the colonies) demanded independence for Brazil. King John declared his son Dom Pedro as ruler of the newly independent Brazil. Brazil was thereby the only Latin American country to be ruled by a king after it gained its independence.

In 1810 in Mexico, a war for independence was initiated by Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo from Dolores, who rallied mestizos (people having both Indian and European ancestors) in a rebellion against Spain. This revolt was memorable because it was the first time a rebellion was led in South America by the mestizos and not by the creoles. Led by Hidalgo, the mestizos marched to Mexico City, but were defeated in 1811 by the Spanish and the creoles. Hidalgo was executed in 1811 and then succeeded by Father José Maria Morelos, who also lost to the creoles, led by Augustin de Iturbide in 1815. The struggle ended in 1821, when Mexico successfully gained independence from Spain.

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state. He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain. During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico. Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was followed by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages. Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy. Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917. Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata. Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza. Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza. He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed. These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system. In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized. It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the next century. The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

===China===

The movements towards revolution and nationalism spread to China. [[Sun Yixian]] was just one of the many Chinese inspired by the unified nations arising in Europe. A rebellion arose in 1911, which ended the rules of the Qing (also known as Manchu) dynasty. Confucianism was rejected by the reformers, who viewed it as old-fashioned, and reforms were sought to give more rights to workers and the poor. The revolutions did not resolve much, but marked the beginning of a period of strife and unrest for China in the early 1900s, which would lead to its establishment as a Communist nation in later decades.

==Revolutionary Art and Literature==

In the early 1800s, art (including music) and literature underwent “revolutions” similar to the political ones. Romanticism was the major artistic movement, reflecting an emphasis on thoughts, feelings and nature. Lord Byron was a leading romanticist who fought for the independence of Greece. This emphasis on feelings mirrored a political romanticism that promoted democracy and the needs of the “common man” or everyday person.

In music, the greatest composer in the history of the world burst onto the scene in the early 1800s: Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827). He revolutionized instrumental music and took it to new heights never before thought possible. His achievement was all the more remarkable because he became totally deaf before the age of 40, and before he composed his greatest works. A German like most great composers, Beethoven’s works capture an intensity and expressive emotion that surpassed even vocal music. It was Beethoven’s great work that led an English critic to declare, “All arts aspire to the condition of music.”
[[Image:Monet Impressionsunrise.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Impression Sunrise]]
In the late 1800s, impressionism moved [[painting]] further away from its traditions. It began in France and continued into the 1900s. The chief feature of impressionism was to paint the transient effects of color and light, and attempt to capture a fleeting image or “impression”. The feeling of an image was emphasized more than the detail (see right). Major impressionistic painters included Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir and Paul Cezanne. Manet, Monet, Renoir and others began emphasizing color and lighting as early as the late 1860s. They often painted landscapes, and insisted on remaining outdoors to until completion of the work, unlike predecessors who preferred to complete such work in the studio. Renoir, for example, is known for brilliance of color, intimate charm in his subjects, and a harmony of his lines.

Though the impressionistic movement in painting dissolved by the mid-1880s, it changed the path of art forever in its rejection of traditional Western approaches to subject matter. The artist Vincent van Gogh, for example, was greatly influenced by the impressionists. There was a musical impressionism also, which emphasized mood and understatement and reflected its composers’ view that pure sound (like color) is an end to itself.

Realism was the new form of literature that told the dark side of the industrial revolution: the overcrowded, filthy conditions in which many workers struggled.

[[Category:World History lectures]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:World History Lecture 09}}

Linguistic Analysis of Candidates

2009-01-18T00:38:38Z

Ashleys: added Arlen Specter

The race for the White House in 2012 has begun, as have key congressional primary races in 2010. Assessing their conservatism may be as simple as counting the frequency of their references to conservative concepts in their speeches and writings.

Potential Republican candidates for president include:

#[[Jeb Bush]]
#[[Mike Huckabee]]
#[[Sarah Palin]]
#[[Mitt Romney]]

as a baseline, [[John McCain]] can also be analyzed linguistically.

Key congressional candidates facing primary challenges include:

#[[Arlen Specter]]

The 20 key conservative terms are:

#Bureaucracy (search on "bureaucra")
#Death tax
#Deregulation (search on "deregulat")
#Dumb down
#Elitism (search on "elitis")
#Free enterprise/market
#Grassroots
#Homeschool (sometimes hyphenated)
#Illegal alien
#Meritocracy
#Phonics
#Politically correct (also political correctness)
#Privatize (search on "privatiz")
#Pro-life
#Property right
#Quota
#Self-defense
#Self-indulgence (search on "self-indulgen")
#Small business
#Victimization

== Analysis ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Candidate
!Bureaucracy
!Death tax
!Deregulation
!Dumb down
!Elitism
!Free enterprise/market
!Grassroots
!Homeschool
!Illegal alien
!Meritocracy
!Phonics
!Politically correct
!Privatize
!Pro-life
!Property right
!Quota
!Self-defense
!Self-indulgence
!Small business
!Victimization
|-
|McCain's CPAC Speech<ref>[http://www.realclearpolitics.com/printpage/?url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/02/john_mccains_cpac_speech.html McCain at 2008 CPAC]</ref>
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Palin's RNC Speech<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/09/04/america/04palin-speech.php Palin's Acceptance Speech at the Republican National Convention]</ref>
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|-
|Senator Arlen Specter's Speech<ref>[http://www.votesmart.org/speech_detail.php?sc_id=298621&keyword=Illegal+alien&phrase=&contain= Senator Arlen Specter]</ref>
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-

|}

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:Conservative]][[Category:United States Presidential Election, 2012]]

American History Lecture Thirteen

2008-12-09T00:36:57Z

Ashleys:

{{HS_American_History}}
[[American History Lecture Thirteen|Lecture]] - [[American_History_Homework_Thirteen|Questions]] - [[American History Homework Thirteen Answers|Student Answers]]

This is the final lecture of the course, and takes us through the [[9/11]] terrorist attack on the World Trade Center.

What is the most important event in America in the current decade 2001-2010? The terrorist attack of 9/11? President Bush's elections? Two new Justices on the Supreme Court? The election of President Obama? Or this class? Do not think that history is something that involves only other people. You shape history too.

Consider the history of the United States to be like a child who grows into an adult. At what age would you expect a baseball player to hit his first home run? At what age would you expect a country to be old enough to have a prolonged Civil War? At what age would you expect a country to be able to lead the world? Put things in perspective and realize that we had to be 180 years old before we could write a Constitution, and over 300 years old before we could become the most powerful nation in the world. But once our country grew old enough, our enemies began to grow from within (e.g., infiltration by anarchists, communists and, more recently, terrorists).

Be able to identify overall trends in our history. One trend is ever-increasing federal power. Another trend is inflation. A third trend is increased democracy. A fourth trend is increasing power in the world. A fifth trend is the Supreme Court pushing us away from our religious roots. In Engel v. Vitale (1962), the Supreme Court banned prayer in public schools. Many consider this to be one of the Supreme Court’s worst decisions ever.

Also understand history as a struggle between two sides. It is like two wrestlers combating each other on a mat. The wrestlers rotate on the map as each one tries to gain an advantage on the other. Same for the two political parties: they rotate their regional support over the years. At the time of the Civil War, the Republican Party dominated in the North and the Democratic Party dominated in the South. Now it is the opposite.

We have seen several important figures who were Quakers: William Penn, Susan Anthony (who favored women’s right to vote), Whittaker Chambers and Richard Nixon. What was the Quaker religion really about? It was Protestant against Protestantism. Every Quaker is his own pastor; every Quaker is his own church using the Bible and his “inner light.” This led to a fierce independence in the character of Quakers, including a pacifism (opposition to war) by the Quakers in the eastern United States.

What "drives" or "leads" or "causes" history? Do politicians lead or follow? Do writers of books lead or follow? What's the real cause of history?

Many would say "culture" is what drives history. In other words, what is considered "cool" to people. What is considered to be fun, enjoyable, fashionable, acceptable, etc. The movies we watch, the books we read, the activities we pursue, the styles, the festivals, the communication, etc.

== Review ==

In the 1960s, these hard-to-categorize events occurred:

* In 1960, Arab nations formed "OPEC" to control the production and sale of oil to the world. OPEC stands for the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. This monopoly has caused shortages and driven up the price of oil, particularly in the early 1970s when OPEC retaliated against the United States.

* In 1960, liberal students formed the "Students for a Democratic Society" (SDS) in Port Huron, Michigan, saying that they are "looking uncomfortably to the world we inherit." It became the foundation for radical groups later in the 1960s, who became increasingly aggressive and violent in their protest activities. In the spring of 1968, it arranged for 1 million students to skip class. But the public hardly noticed. However, an SDS chapter at Columbia University did succeed with a "sit in" that forced the school to temporarily shut down.

* In 1961, President Kennedy started two programs to help alleviate poverty in foreign countries. One was the Alliance for Progress, which consisted of foreign aid to Latin America. The other was the Peace Corps, which sent volunteers to foreign countries to teach farming and build schools.

* In 1962, Michael Harrington wrote a book entitled "The Other America," which exposed poverty by 1 out of every 4, especially in Appalachia, in the South, and in city ghettos.

* Student movements expanded in 1964 with the "Free Speech Movement," which began at the ultra-liberal University of California at Berkeley and began to protest a number of perceived injustices.

In 1970, the Nixon Administration founded the Environmental Protection Agency (the "EPA") ostensibly to conserve natural resources and reduce pollution. The EPA quickly banned DDT on unproven environmental grounds (as incited by the since-discredited book the "Silent Spring," by Rachel Carson). This ban on DDT, which continues to this day, has resulted in the avoidable deaths of millions of Africans from malaria; DDT easily eliminates malaria.

== The 1970s ==

Furman v. Georgia "1972: invalidates death penalties, requires high standards and guidelines before imposing the death penalty"

Comm. to Reelect the Pres. "1972: Pres. Nixon's reelection committee in 1972 that broke the law, caused Watergate; named ""CREEP"" by critics"

Panama Canal treaties "1977: Carter agrees to give back Panama Canal to Panama after 1999, Senate approves"

Camp David Accords "1978: Carter gets Egypt and Israel to agree to peace, still in effect"

Three Mile Island "1979: Nuclear power plant's meltdown near Harrisburg, boosted anti-nuclear movement"

Iran hostage crisis 1979-81: Iranian fundamentalists captured US embassy since Carter helped Shah; hostages released for Reagan

Watergate 1972-74: Burglary that led to cover-up led to Nixon resigning

Spiro Agnew "1973: Nixon's VP, forced out based on corruption charges arising from when he was governor of Maryland"

Saturday Night Massacre 1973: Nixon wants special prosecutor Cox fired; 2 resign rather than fire Cox; Robert Bork eventually fires Cox

Nixon resigns "1973: Ct ordered his tapes released, and impeachment was likely, so Nixon resigned first"

Gerald Ford "1973-76: Repub., only unelected President; pardoned Nixon, signed Helsinki Accords to promote rights worldwide"

Jimmy Carter "1976-1980: Dem. Pres., honest antidote to Nixon scandal, boycotted Olympics, decried nat'l ""malaise"", high inflation"

== President Ronald Reagan ==

This lecture is about [[Ronald Reagan]], whose influence on American history remains high even 20 years after he was president. An entire course could even be taught about him.

Ronald Reagan "1980-1988: Repub. Pres.: less govt. regulation, more morality, tough with Communists; ""tear down this wall"" (Berlin)"

Many politicians still define themselves by reference to President Reagan, who served from 1980-88. President Clinton, who served in the 1990s, imitated President Reagan in style (but not in substance). The first President Bush, who served from 1988-1992, only won because he had been President Reagan’s vice president.

Called the “Great Communicator” for his ability to connect with the American people through television, President Reagan was both the most-ridiculed president in history and the one who left office with the highest popularity of any modern president. A recent telephone and internet poll selected Ronald Reagan as the greatest American ever, to the dismay of those conducting the survey (who expected someone like Lincoln to win).

Reagan was inaugurated on Jan. 20, 1981. On that day, Iran released unharmed all of our hostages that it had held in retaliation against Jimmy Carter’s support of the Shah of Iran. That hostage crisis paralyzed Jimmy Carter’s final year in office, and contributed to his defeat for reelection.

Reagan immediately went to work in enacting the conservative agenda. Within one month, on Feb. 18th, Reagan proposed the biggest tax and spending cuts in history. Reagan adhered to “supply-side economics,” a new theory advanced by Arthur Laffer that cutting taxes would actually increase government revenue. He drew a curve on the back of a napkin in a restaurant one night to explain his theory: as taxes approach 100%, government revenue decreases towards zero because people lose reason to work (all their income is taken by the government). By cutting taxes, we can actually increase revenue. Most established economists laughed at this theory, sarcastically calling it “Reaganomics”.

It was a very rough initial two months in office for Reagan. In 1981 the House of Representatives was controlled by Democrats, and the media was also completely against him.

Then, on March 30th, John Hinckley shot Reagan as he was walking from a speaking event to his car in D.C. The bullet came with an inch of killing him. But Reagan survived with charm and good spirits. Despite losing a great deal of blood, Reagan was even cracking jokes about his misfortune as he was rushed to the hospital. Hinckley tried to kill Reagan because Hinckley had been inspired by a filthy Hollywood movie featuring a prostitute played by Jodie Foster. Hinckley was trying to impress the actress. Hinckley was later found not guilty by reason of insanity, and that led to changes in many laws to limit the insanity defense. Many people gave Reagan a break at this point, and grew sympathetic towards him. His tax cuts passed Congress, because many Democrats voted for them. In exchange Reagan promised not to campaign against them when they ran for reelection.

In August 1981, the Air Traffic Controllers union (PATCO) went on strike in order to obtain much higher wages. Reagan went on television to address the nation and told the union workers to stay on the job or be fired. He was acting just as one of his heroes, President Calvin Coolidge, did when Coolidge was governor of Massachusetts and the police went on strike. Reagan then fired all the PATCO workers who went on strike and barred them from ever being rehired. The airports remained open through use of military traffic controllers who filled in for the strikers.

In 1982, unemployment hit 10.8%, the worst since the Great Depression. Reagan was blamed for this and things looked bleak. But the criticism did not change Reagan. “Stay the course” was his campaign slogan for Republicans up for reelection in 1982. The Democrats countered with “stay the curse.” After hitting rock bottom in 1982, the effects of Reagan’s tax and spending cuts began to take hold in 1983. An unprecedented economic boom began in 1983 and lasted throughout the remainder of the 1980s.

In 1983, Reagan turned to foreign policy. He called the communist Soviet Union the “evil empire.” Then Reagan advanced a completely original idea in a speech to the nation: he proposed a missile defense system called the “Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI).” This was probably the most original and powerful idea ever proposed by a president in our entire history. Reagan’s enemies derisively called it “Star Wars.”

To understand the idea, it is first necessary to appreciate our military defense strategy in the 1970s. Throughout the 1970s, our foreign policy towards the Soviet Union consisted of “Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD).” Under this approach, each side was deterred from attacking the other side because the result would be the mutual destruction of both sides through massive nuclear war. While neither side could defend against an attack, each side threatened massive retaliation as a deterrent to the attack. Simply put: “if you attack me, then I’ll attack you back and we’ll both be destroyed!”

There were obvious flaws in MAD. What about an accidental firing of a nuclear missile by the other side, which we could do nothing to stop? What about an attack by smaller countries? What about a terrorist missile attack? What about an attack by a crazed dictator who might rise to power and not mind mutual assured destruction? MAD left us defenseless against such attacks.

Reagan wanted a defense against missile attacks. He thought this would bring us to a new level of freedom and security. Critics immediately attacked his theory as impossible, wasteful, and destabilizing. Enormous debate and controversy followed, and many were vicious in their criticism of Reagan over this.
Also in 1983, communists backed by Cuba invaded Grenada, where there were over one hundred American medical students. Reagan immediately sent in our troops and saved the students, bringing them back to the United States safely. Students were seen on television kissing the ground of American soil as soon as they got off their planes.

In 1984, Reagan stood for reelection against Walter Mondale, the former Vice President under Jimmy Carter. Reagan’s mind was stuffed with facts by his advisers in preparation for his first of two debates with Mondale, and Reagan did poorly. Mondale pulled nearly even in the polls. For the second and final debate, public supporters of Reagan demanded that his advisers “let Reagan be Reagan.” Free to be himself, Reagan destroyed Mondale in the second debate and went on to win one of the biggest landslide victories in U.S. history.

In 1985, Reagan began authorizing the sale of arms to Iran in exchange for its work to free American hostages held captive in the Middle East. Two years later this would turn into the “Iran-Contra” scandal, as the proceeds of those sales were intended to be sent to anti-communist freedom fighters in Nicaragua (the “Contras”). Congress, which was controlled by Democrats, had passed a law prohibiting funding of the Contras, and saw this as a violation of that law. Reagan was never charged with any crime, however.

In 1986, Reagan cut taxes much further. He also met with Gorbachev (the leader of the Soviet Union) in Reykjavik, Iceland to negotiate an arms reduction deal. Gorbachev was willing to give Reagan almost anything he wanted in return for just one demand: abandon Star Wars. Reagan refused, and left Iceland embarrassed and dejected for not reaching a deal. He was further criticized in the media for this.

In 1987, Reagan insisted on visiting the Berlin Wall, despite obvious security risks of being in the range of communist East German sharpshooters. In preparing for his speech there, Reagan wrote into his draft remarks this demand: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!” His advisors removed this phrase from the speech as being unrealistic, silly and confrontational. As the drafts of the speech went back in forth between Reagan and his advisors, Reagan kept inserting the phrase and his advisors kept removing it. But Reagan included the phrase in his spoken words, the world heard it, and within a few years the wall was miraculously torn down. Reagan is credited with ending communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, though it still remains in China, North Korea, Vietnam and Cuba.

In 1988, Reagan struck a deal for free trade (no tariffs) with Canada. Reagan was also instrumental in enabling his Vice President, George H.W. Bush, to be elected president in 1988 in a close race.

In 1990, during the (Persian) Gulf War against Iraq, Americans were amazed by the use by our troops of a new missile defense system that knocked Saddam Hussein’s deadly missiles out of the sky before they could hit our troops, civilians, or Israel. Hussein had planned to use chemical warfare with his missiles, and his threatened use of the missiles terrified the world until our missile defense system removed the threat. In addition to giving the United States an important tactical advantage, this new technology inspired by Reagan’s “Star Wars” idea saved thousands of lives.

Debate topic:

In class we then debated this topic: Should Ford have pardoned Nixon?

Ronald Reagan "1980-1988: Repub. Pres.: less govt. regulation, more morality, tough with Communists; ""tear down this wall"" (Berlin)"

Reaganomics "how critics described ""supply side economics"": tax cuts help everyone and can even increase govt revenue"

women Sup. Ct. Justices 1981: 1st woman Supreme Court Justice was Sandra Day O'Connor; second was Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1993)

Iran-Contra Scandal "1986: Using arms-for-hostages to fund Contras, despite Congress. prohibition"

Star Wars 1983: Reagan's idea for system to shoot down enemy missiles mid-air; partially developed and useful in Gulf War

Immigration, from Nick:
3. I think that the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, signed into law by President Ronald Regan, was a good idea, for the most part. This law made it a crime for an employer to hire an illegal immigrant. It also required that employers have their employees complete a form, called the I-9 form, which provided documentation that the employees were legally eligible to work in the United States. It imposed financial penalties for the companies who were employing illegal aliens. This law was passed in hopes of reducing illegal immigration.

While I believe that this law was a great idea, I disagree with a part of it. This Act granted amnesty to most illegal aliens who had come to the United States before 1982 and had lived there ever since. I understand why this was done, but I do not agree with it.

== Gulf War ==

Recall that President Lyndon Johnson is known for two things, the Great Society and the Vietnam War. President George H.W. Bush (the father of President George W. Bush) is known for three things: breaking his pledge of "no new taxes," winning the Persian Gulf War, and nominating Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court. We discuss the first two here, and the last in the next section.

In 1988 the economy was doing well based on eight years of conservative policies under President Reagan. President George H.W. Bush, Reagan's Vice President, won the Republican nomination for president and rode on Reagan's successes to win the presidential election in 1988. But he made a famous promise of "Read my lips, no new taxes," which he later broke as President when he signed a tax increase by the Democratic Congress in response to a massive budget deficit. Breaking that promise hurt him enormously politically.

In 1990, Saddam Hussein thought that America would do nothing when he invaded and easily conquered nearby Kuwait, where lucrative oil fields are. President George H.W. Bush, alarmed by the consequences of Saddam Hussein controlling so much oil and the injustice of the invasion, struck back with American troops. They quickly defeated (and killed) Hussein's army and drove the few survivors back to Baghdad. American casualties were extremely low, and President Bush was hero. The combat was code-named Operation Desert Storm. The Operation never intended to overthrow or capture Saddam Hussein himself, but President George H.W. Bush was later criticized for not "finishing the job," and some say that his son (the current President George W. Bush) wanted to take care of that.

The high point in the war came when Saddam Hussein began launching missiles at the troops, missiles thought to contain chemical warfare that could cause horrific death. The American troops had "Patriot missiles" designed based on President Reagan's "Star Wars" proposal, and these American missiles intercepted and shot down the Iraqi missiles in mid-flight. It was spectacular to watch a fast-moving missile be tracked and then exploded in mid-air by another fast-moving missile. This was something that liberals, including scientists, claimed was impossible to do. Hussein launched missile after missile, and a soldier sitting in front a computer screen in a trailer fired Patriot missile after missile to shoot down the enemy missiles.

Angry and frustrated, Hussein then fired his missiles at civilian populations in Israel. It had been developing its own missile defense program, but it was not ready for this. Quickly the American troops rushed their missile defense to Israel so it could protect its population too.

== Clarence Thomas ==

Two big events occurred during the one-term presidency of George H.W. Bush (who is the father of future President George W. Bush). One was the Gulf War, described above. The other was President George H.W. Bush's nomination of Clarence Thomas as the second African American to the U.S. Supreme Court, to fill the vacancy left by the retirement of Thurgood Marshall.

Clarence Thomas was and is a [[conservative]] opponent of affirmative action, which is giving preferences to people based on race. He was and is considered to be an opponent of abortion also, and a conservative on most other issues. [[Liberals]] seem to grow angrier when confronted with a conservative African American, like Clarence Thomas, or a conservative woman. They did everything they could to prevent confirmation of his appointment by the Senate.

The "smear" campaign against Thomas was one of the worst in American history, and Thomas himself appeared on national television to bitterly describe it as a "high-tech lynching." In a flagrant violation of the rules of the Senate, the staff of a Democratic member of the Judiciary Committee leaked a confidential FBI background report to Nina Totenberg of National Public Radio (NPR) which contained a vicious personal allegation about Thomas's past. Nothing was proven and there was much reason to disbelieve the allegation. But the plan was to intimidate Thomas into withdrawing, or turn the public against him, or give senators enough of a reason to vote against him. The liberals even scheduled a vote on the nomination almost immediately after the airing of the allegation, which could only be postponed by unanimous consent under Senate rules, in order to force senators to vote before the allegation could be disproved. But the vote was postponed, hearings were held, and only one senator moved from being for Thomas to being against him: the former Ku Klux Klan Democratic Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia. Thomas was confirmed by a vote of 52-48, the narrowest margin in history for a Supreme Court Justice.

Your teacher was in D.C. at the time and had personally met Clarence Thomas a year earlier. Your teacher, the entire city of D.C., and even the entire nation, was riveted by this drama. A liberal colleague of your teacher quipped afterward that the media ambush of Thomas during the confirmation process was not likely to make him any less conservative. Since 1991 Thomas has been part of a conservative block on the Supreme Court that has grown to a total of 4-5 Justices out of a total of 9, sometimes enough for a majority and sometimes just shy by one vote.

== Bill Clinton ==

By 1992, President George H.W. Bush's popularity was falling fast. The economy was failing. He had signed burdensome legislation into law, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, which required small businesses to comply with costly new regulations for citizens having physical or mental disabilities. Buildings were required to install elevators, for example, and create other accommodations like setting aside many parking spaces set aside for people having disabilities. Lawyers could enter retail stores, spot something not in compliance with the new regulations, and file expensive lawsuits against the businesses with demands for payment of the lawyers own attorneys' fees. While everyone wanted to do more for the disabled, this federal legislation created countless lawsuits and expenses. The U.S. Supreme Court used the ADA to order the Professional Golf Association (PGA) to drop its ban on golf carts at events so that a golfer who claimed he had a rare circulatory problem could compete while using a golf cart!<ref>http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5513/is_/ai_n21474458</ref>

Conservatives supported a candidate (Pat Buchanan) to challenge Bush for the Republican nomination, and Bush was crushed in a three-way contest in the fall. Democrat Bill Clinton won 43% of the vote, Bush won 37%, and independent third-party candidate Ross Perot (a wealthy businessman from Texas concerned about the budget deficit) won 19%.

Bill Clinton 1992-2000: Dem. Pres. hurt by failed health care plan and Monica Lewinski sex scandal; 1st budget surplus in years

"""Don't ask, don't tell""" 1993: Clinton wanted ban on gays in military lifted; military refused and excludes gays; protested by gay movement

Health care reform "1993: Hilary Clinton led team to take over health care. Physicians, pro-lifers help defeat complex plan in Congress"

World Trade Center bombing 1993: terrorists linked to radical Muslims set off truck bomb under World Trade Ctr in attempt to destroy it; six killed

Brady Bill 1994: federal gun control requiring criminal background check and five-day waiting period for handgun purchasers

Bombing of the Federal Building "1995: on 2nd anniversary of govt raid in Waco, in retaliation Timothy McVeigh bombed govt bldg in Oklahoma City"

NAFTA "1993: North American Free Trade Agt., creates free-trade zone encompassing Mexico, Canada, and the U.S. "

World Trade Organization 1995: Aims to promote world trade by lowering by lowering trade barriers.

Monica Lewinsky 1998: Clinton lied about his relationship with intern Monica Lewinsky; led to his impeachment (but not his removal)

Columbine High School "1999: two anti-Christian bigoted high school students killed 12 students, one for believing in God, and a teacher"

Dot-com Boom 1997-2000: huge speculation in stocks doing business over the internet; followed by dot-com bust
students; baseball team plays high school; seniors get into best colleges

== 21st Century ==

The 21st Century began in 2001 (though many thought it started in 2000), with a new President George W. Bush being sworn in on Jan. 20, 2001. That election was the most contested since 1876, when Rutherford was declared the winner over Tilden based on the Compromise of 1877 to end Reconstruction. Bush defeated his opponent, Al Gore, by a few hundred votes in the decisive state of Florida but it took the U.S. Supreme Court (Bush v. Gore) to intervene to stop the Democrats from recounting and reevaluating ballots in an attempt to declare Gore the winner.

President George W. Bush described himself as a "compassionate conservative," which meant expanding government to give more "entitlements" (handouts). He did slightly cut taxes, but let government spending increase beyond control.

9/11 terrorist attacks "Sept. 11, 2001: Saudi Arabians hijack 4 planes, fly 2 into World Trade Ctr, it catches fire and collapses, killing 3000"
" 3rd jet crashed into Pentagon, killing 66; passengers fight hijackers on 4th jet, it crashes in Pennsylvania field."

Patriot Act of 2001 "Permits extensive phone and email surveillance, and authorizes deportation or detention of suspected terrorists"

No Child Left Behind Act "2001: Aims to improve public schools by increasing testing, and mandating alternatives when test scores are failing"

War on Terrorism 2001: War begun after the 9/11 attacks with the intension of ending international terrorism

Invasion of Afghanistan 2001: Targeted Al-Qaeda members and sought to punish Taliban government for harboring terrorists.

Invasion of Iraq 2003: Saddam Hussein of Iraq fails to disarm; US invades and eventually captures Saddam.

homeschooling now mainstream 2006: homeschooling class swells to 42

==Term List==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Transatlantic Cable
| "Peace without Victory"
| McCarren Internal Security Act
|-
| Seward Purchase of Alaska
| Jones Act
| Joseph McCarthy
|-
| Tariff Issue
| Zimmermann telegram
| Edward R. Murrow
|-
| Exodusters
| Selective Service Act
| Korean War
|-
| The Grange/Oliver Kelley
| Espionage Act
| General Douglas MacArthur
|-
| Elizabeth Cady Stanton
| World War 1
| McCarren-Walter Immigration & Nationality Act
|-
| Chataugua Movement
| Lever Act
| Dwight D. Eisenhower
|-
| Chief Joseph/Nez Perce
| Trading with the enemy Act
| Earl Warren
|-
| Bessemer Process
| Bolsheviks
| SEATO
|-
| ''Munn v. Illinois''
| Sedition Act
| Brown v. Board of Education
|-
| Workingmen's Party
| Fourteen Points
| AFL-CIO
|-
| Edison/Light bulb
| National War Labor board
| Montgomery Bus Boycott
|-
| Bland-Allison Act
| Overman Act
| Beat Culture
|-
| Standard Oil Trust
| Schenck v. U.S.
| Eisenhower Doctrine
|-
| Booker T. Washington
| Abrams v. U.S.
| Domino Theory
|-
| James Garfield
| Debs v. U.S.
| MAD
|-
| Stalwarts
| Treaty of Versailles
| NASA
|-
| Chester Arthur
| Prohibition supporters
| Landum-Griffin Act
|-
| Pendleton Act
| 19th Ammendment
| Fidel Castro
|-
| Civil Service Commission
| How the Other Half Lives
| U-2
|-
| Helen Hunt Jackson
| Adkins v. Children's Hospital
| Sputnik
|-
| Chinese Exclusion Act
| Wright Brothers Flight
| John F. Kennedy
|-
| Civil Rights Cases
| Niagara Movement/NAACP
| Opec
|-
| Brooklyn Bridge
| DuBois compared to Washington
| Sit-ins
|-
| James Blaine
| "Big" Bill Haywood
| Alliance for Progress
|-
| Mugwumps
| Henry Ford
| Bay of Pigs
|-
| Grover Cleveland
| United Negro Imprvmt Ass'n
| Berlin Wall
|-
| American Federat. of Labor (AFL)
| 18th Ammendment
| Peace corps
|-
| Haymarket Square riot
| Volstead Act
| Freedom Rides
|-
| Yick Wo v. Hopkins
| Great American Authors wrote...
| Project Apollo
|-
| Interstate Commerce Act
| Tin Pan Alley
| Vietnam
|-
| Dawes Act
| William Faulkner
| Engel v. Vitale
|-
| Jane Addams/Hull house
| Eugene O'Neill
| Baker v. Carr
|-
| Williamsport, Pennsylvania
| Harlem Renaissance
| The Other America
|-
| Benjamin Harrison
| Sacco and Vanzetti
| The Feminine Mystique
|-
| US Census Bureau declares...
| radio, Television
| National Organiz. For Women
|-
| Sherman Antitrust Act
| Warren G. Harding
| Students for a Democratic Soc'y
|-
| John Sherman
| Federal Highway Act
| James Meredith/Univ. of Mississ.
|-
| Sherman Silver Purchase Act
| Washington Naval Conference
| Cuban Missle Crisis
|-
| McKinley Tariff
| Immigration 1890-1917
| Gideon v. Wainwright
|-
| Alfred Thayer Mahan
| Emergancy Quota Act
| Martin Luther King Jr.
|-
| Homestead Strike
| Fordney McCumber Act
| South Christian Leadership Conference
|-
| Frederick Jackson Turner
| Calvin Coolidge
| Student Nonviolent Coord. Com.
|-
| Panic of 1893
| Coolidge's view on Strikes
| Black Panthers
|-
| Queen Liliuokalani
| National Origins Act
| March on Washington
|-
| National Municipal League
| Scopes "Monkey" Trial
| Office of Economic Opportunity
|-
| Coxey's Army
| Charles Lindbergh
| Civil Rights Act of 1964
|-
| Wilson-Gorman Tariff
| Great Mississippi Flood
| Escobedo v. Illinois
|-
| Eugene V. Debs
| Kellogg-Briand Pact (or Treaty)
| Free Speech Movement
|-
| Pollack v. Farmers Loan & Trust
| Herbert Hoover
| Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
|-
| Atlanta Exposition/Compromise
| Stock Market Crash
| Lyndon Johnson
|-
| U.S. v. Knight Co.
| Hawley-Smoot Tariff
| Voting Rights Act
|-
| In re Debs
| Causes of Depression
| "Great Society"
|-
| Condition to admit Utah as State
| Reconstruction Finance Corp.
| Medicare and Medicaid
|-
| Plessy v. Ferguson
| Bonus March
| Elem. & Sec. & High Ed. Acts
|-
| William Jennings Bryan
| Franklin Delano Roosevelt
| Dept. of Urban Housing and Dev't
|-
| "Cross of Gold Speech"
| New Deal
| Miranda v. Arizona
|-
| Populist Party/Platform
| "Hundred Days"
| Thurgood Marshall
|-
| ...high point
| Emergency Banking Act
| Tet Offensive
|-
| ...ended because
| Civilian Conservation Corps
| Paris Peace Talks
|-
| William McKinley
| Agricultural Adjustment Act
| Robert F. Kennedy(bro of JFK)
|-
| Spanish American War
| Federal Emergency Relief Act
| Democratic National Convention
|-
| De Lome Letter
| Tennessee Valley Act
| Chicago Seven
|-
| U.S.S. Maine
| Farm-Credit Act
| EPA
|-
| Rough Riders
| Glass-Steagall Banking Act
| Roe v. Wade
|-
| Joseph Pulitzer
| National Industrial Recovery Act
| Richard Nixon
|-
| "Yellow Journalism"
| 21st Ammendment
| Apollo 11
|-
| Teller Amendment
| Good Neighbor Policy
| War powers Act
|-
| Commander George Dewey
| Federal housing Authority
| New York Times v. U.S.
|-
| Treaty of Paris
| Gold Reserve Act
| Furman v. Georgia
|-
| Open Door Policy
| Securities and Exchange Act
| Henry Kissinger
|-
| Foraker Act
| Works Progress Administration
| "Vietnamization"
|-
| Boxer Rebellion
| National Housing Act
| Strategic Arms Limit Trty(SALT)
|-
| Platt Amendment
| Schecter Poultry v. U.S.
| Comm. to reelect the Pres.
|-
| Theodore Roosevelt
| Wagner Act
| Watergate
|-
| Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
| Social Security Act
| Spiro Agnew
|-
| Venezuela boundry dispute
| Congress of Indust. Organ. (CIO)
| Saturday Night Massacre
|-
| Newlands Reclemation Act
| Fair Labor Standards Act
| Nixon Resigns
|-
| The Philippines
| Trade Agreements Act
| Gerald Ford
|-
| Women's Trade Union League
| Neutrality Act
| Jimmy Carter
|-
| Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
| Pennsylvania Turnpike
| Panama Canal treaties
|-
| Northern Securities Co. v. U.S.
| Selective Training and Service Act
| Camp David Accords
|-
| Russo-Japanese War
| Four Freedoms
| Black Codes
|-
| Lochner v. New York
| Lend-Lease Act
| Three Mile Island
|-
| Hepburn Act
| Atlantic Charter
| Salt-II
|-
| The Jungle
| U-Boats
| Iran Hostage Crisis
|-
| Meat Inspection Act
| Pearl Harbor
| Equal Rights Ammendement
|-
| Pure Food and Drug Act
| D-Day
| Ronald Reagan
|-
| Muckrakers
| Casablanca Conference
| Reaganomics
|-
| Treaty of Portsmouth
| Holocaust
| women sup. Ct. Justices
|-
| Taft-Katsura Agreement
| CORE
| Iran-Contra Scandal
|-
| Susan B. Anthony
| "Voice of America"
| Star Wars
|-
| Gentlemen's Agt. re: Japan
| Teheran Conference
| George Bush Sr.
|-
| Root-Takhira Agreement
| Yalta Conference
| Persian Gulf War
|-
| Muller v. Oregon
| Potsdam Conference
| Americans with Disabilities Act
|-
| Paine-Aldrich Tariff
| Manhattan Project
| Budget Plan of 1990
|-
| Mann-Elkins Act
| Harry S. Truman
| Clarence Thomas
|-
| Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire
| Hiroshima, Nagasaki
| Bill Clinton
|-
| Progressive Movement
| Korematsu v. U.S.
| "Don't Ask, Don't tell"
|-
| William Howard Taft
| Servicemen's readjustment Act
| Health Care Reform
|-
| Progressive (Bull moose) Party
| Bretton Woods/World Bank
| World Trade Center Bombing
|-
| Woodrow Wilson
| Dumbarton Oaks/United Nations
| Brady Bill
|-
| Underwood Tariff
| Full Employment Act
| Bombing of the Federal Building
|-
| Dillingham Commission
| Loyalty Boards
| NAFTA
|-
| 17th Ammendment
| Taft-Hartley Act
| World Trade Organizations
|-
| 16th Ammendment
| Truman Doctrine
| Monica Lewinsky
|-
| Federal Reserve Act
| George Kennan/Containment
| Columbine High School
|-
| Triple Alliance
| National Security Act/Council
| Dot-Com Boom
|-
| Triple Entente
| Marshall Plan
| Bush v. Gore
|-
| Archduke Ferdinand
| Jackie Robinson
| George W. Bush
|-
| Clayton-Antitrust Act
| Organization of American States
| 9/11 terrorsit attacks
|-
| Federal Trade Commission Act
| Centeral Intelligence Agency
| Patriot Act of 2001
|-
| Guinn v. U.S.
| "Iron Curtain"
| No Child left behind Act
|-
| Lusitantia
| North Atlantic Trty Org.(NATO)
| War on Terrorism
|-
| National Defense Act
| Youngstown Sheet & Tube Case
| Invasion of Afghanistan
|-
| Federal Farm Loan Act
| House un-American Activ. Committee
| Baseball
|-
| Sussex Pledge
| Whittaker Chambers/Alger Hiss
| Invasion of Iraq
|-
| Urban League
| Ethel and Julius Rosenberg
| homeschooling now mainstream
|-

|}

[[Category:American History lectures]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:American History Lecture 13}}

American History Lecture Thirteen

2008-12-07T13:31:12Z

Ashleys:

American History Lecture Three

2008-08-16T04:32:42Z

Ashleys:

More tips on answer multiple-choice history questions:

1. Look for the best fit. The question is like a lock or key hole, and you are looking for the answer (key) that is the best fit. Matching the verb or concept behind the question with the best fitting verb or concept in the answer can help. For example, when the question asked about “exploration”, the answer that said to “find the best route” was the best fit and the correct answer.

2. Disqualify an incorrect answers language that is too sweeping, such as “everyone” or “only”. Question: Why was George Washington elected president? Potential answer: Because everyone wanted him. Nope, not “everyone”. Question: Why was slavery used? Answer: Only because of greed. Nope. Not “only” because of greed. Some common "sweeping" words are: everyone, always, never, only, all, every.

3. When a question completely baffles you, such as a question asking for the political motive behind the “Wizard of Oz” movie, look for an economic or money answer. Historical events and politics are motivated more by money than most students realize.

4. View multiple choice questions like a puzzle. Enjoy solving it. This class has more talent than any other class in our state, and maybe in the country. Don’t let any test or question intimidate you.

Note about last week’s homework: Massachusetts did not have religious freedom. They came here for their personal religious freedom, but they did not give that freedom to others. Also, be aware that there many slaves in Virginia and other colonies long before Bacon’s Rebellion.

[[Triangular trade]]: a system of trade that enabled the same set of ships to carry slaves from Africa to the West Indies, and then molasses up to New England, and then rum (alcohol manufactured from molasses) back to England or Africa. These trade routes, when mapped, took the shape of triangles.

There has always been constant conflict between debtors (farmers) and creditors (banks). Debtor’s prison: understand the financial motivation for it. It’s wrong, but understand why it existed. See both sides of every dispute. Put yourself back at that time. Think of what it must have been like. Imagine it. See both sides of the Boston Massacre, for example. What were British soldiers doing there??? Maybe it was reasonable to object to their presence.

We discussed how England justified its direct taxation to pay for the [[French and Indian War]]. But how do we know the taxes were to pay for the war??? Would that be all that the taxes would be paying for??? Would the taxes cease when the war debt was paid? No, because that was a slippery slope. Those taxes would never end, even after the war was fully paid.

The American Revolution was a “conservative revolution.”

We won the Revolution. What next?

Before we won, there were meetings of the [[Continental Congress]] (initiated by the [[Committees of Correspondence]]) to organize war efforts and address issues common to all the colonies. It adopted the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and proposed the Articles of Confederation in 1777. Eventually it was ratified by the 13 colonies (in 1781). It provided for a unicameral (one body) Congress to govern. No president and no courts. One vote for each state.

9 out of 13 states’ approval were needed to pass anything. All 13 states’ approval was needed to amend it. Those percentages are just too high for a collection of states that were very different from each other.

Powers given to Congress by the Articles of Confederation: declare war, raise and army and navy, make commercial treaties, borrow money, control currency and levy assessments against the states.

Powers Congress lacked under the Articles of Confederation: could not impose taxes on the people or enforce its will against states that refused to cooperate. It could ask the states for money, but could not force them to pay.

Bottom line: most power remained in each state under the Articles of Confederation. The national government could not raise money to pay its own obligations.

But the Articles of Confederation did succeed in its plan for the systematic admission of new states based on population: the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.

Shay’s Rebellion in 1786-87 illustrated how inadequate the national government was under the Articles of Confederation. It was an armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers burdened with high debt. This was the first of many future clashes between Americans who owed money (debtors) and those who lent money (creditors). The farmers were angry that they had to pay back their loans in “specie” (gold or silver) rather than cheaper paper money, which was a common requirement of the time. They lost their farms when they could not pay their loans, and because of that they lost their right to vote, because at the time only property owners could vote. They violently took over the town courthouse to prevent any additional court-ordered seizures of their farms. The Massachusetts governor sent in the militia but there were more farmers in the rebellion then there were in the militia. Daniel Shays then led 1200 men to Springfield to capture the federal arsenal, but by then there were enough state militiamen to win. Shays fled to the Vermont area. Everyone was panicked by this uprising, and a newly elected Massachusetts legislature subsequently enacted some debt relief.

The Constitutional Convention convened in the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia to strengthen the national government by modifying the Articles of Confederation. Every state sent representatives except Rhode Island. (Remember Rhode Island – some claim its “separation of church and state” laid the foundation for the Constitution. It didn’t even show up!). The deliberations were held in secret, without any news leaking to the newspapers. Everyone was ordered to destroy their notes afterwards, but James Madison kept his notes and they were released about fifty years later.

Did the attendees limit their actions to fixing the Articles of Confederation? No. This same debate rages today by calls for a constitutional convention to balance the budget (1980s) or protect traditional marriage. There is no way to limit what a constitutional convention does. The only protection for the people is that the document still must be ratified by the states. (This debate over whether a constitutional convention can be called for limited issue continues today, with many saying that there is never a way to limit a constitutional convention.)

What the delegates to the Constitutional Convention did was create a written Constitution that has lasted as the oldest written national instrument of government in the world today. Their product is probably the greatest single written document of a collection men ever created in the history of the world.

Key participants in the Constitutional Convention: James Madison, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin. Missing: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson. Adams and Jefferson were overseas in diplomatic missions, Adams to England and Jefferson to France. Remember those alliances: Adams (and all of New England) was allied with England, while Jefferson (and much of Virginia) was allied with France.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention were bright, dedicated, and spiritual men. This was a very special event.

The resulting Constitution breaks government into three separate branches that can check and balance each other. If one branch grabs too much power, then the other two can gang up to stop it.

The three branches are these:

Congress (Article I)
President/Executive (Article II)
Judiciary (Article III)

Article IV of the Constitution outlines the relationship between the federal (national) government and the states. Article V outlines the procedures for amending the Constitution, contrary to the Articles of Confederation, unanimous consent of the states is NOT required for an amendment. Article VI declares the Constitution the supreme Law of the Land. Article VII provides for the procedure to ratify the Constitution.

Many small states ratified the Constitution quickly, because they liked the idea of having equal representation in the Senate. But bigger states, such as [[Virginia]] and [[New York]], were more reluctant to give up their power to a national government.

A huge debate followed in some of the states, particularly Virginia and New York. To persuade New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote the Federalist papers, which was a series of editorials that ran in a big New York newspaper. Most famous of these is Madison’s Federalist No. 10: “Among the numerous advantages promised by a well constructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately developed than its tendency to break and control the violence of faction.” Madison’s insight was that a new United States of America, with its large size and separation of powers, could protect freedom against the tyranny of a small group better than individual colonies could.

The debate over ratification pitted the Federalists (for example, Alexander Hamilton) against the Anti-Federalists (for example, Patrick Henry)

Once the ninth state ([[New Hampshire]]) ratified on June 21, 1788, the Constitution became law of the land. George Washington was elected a few months afterwards as our first president.

[[George Washington]] was so popular and respected that he probably could have become king. He was in his fifties, about the age of our President Bush. Even if Washington did not become king, he could have ruled as president for the rest of his life. But his greatness was, like Jesus, in his declining power to rule over everyone else. Washington was inaugurated as president in 1789.

An example of Washington’s greatness was his handling of “Citizen” Edmond Genet (pronounced zhe – nay), who was sent by France to the United States just after the French Revolution. France felt that the United States owed it assistance after all France did to help us win the Revolutionary War. But in 1793 Washington issued his Proclamation of Neutrality to keep us neutral in the enormous turmoil in Europe. But Genet went around our new country stirring up pro-French sentiment with impassioned speeches. He sent out private American citizens to attack British shipping (called “privateers,” but acting like pirates). Washington told Genet to stop this, but he refused. Washington told France to recall him. But the French Revolution got out of hand, with senseless violence and executions. “Citizen Genet,” as he was known, reasonably feared the guillotine if he returned to France. He begged Washington to grant him asylum in this country. Washington did. Genet later married the daughter of the governor of New York, and became a normal farmer.

Another example of George Washington’s greatness was his handling of the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794. Farmers in western Pennsylvania protested a 7-cent per gallon tax on corn whiskey. These farmers refused to pay the tax, retaliated against farmers who did pay it, and attacked U.S. marshals and revenue agents. Washington told the Pennsylvania governor to end the rebellion, but he refused. Washington himself then raised an army from neighboring states and personally rode out as their leader to quell the rebellion. The farmers gave up without bloodshed. Several were caught, tried and convicted for their rebellion. What did Washington do? He pardoned them.

In 1796, Washington was up for reelection. He then did something that no leader of a revolution has ever done: he gave up his power for the good of others. He left by publishing one of the greatest documents in all of American history: Washington’s farewell address. Written by [[Alexander Hamilton]], this [[Farewell Address]] urged Americans to stay out of conflicts in Europe. It also reminded Americans that morality is the foundation is our society.

Several other important things happened during the presidency (the Administration) of George Washington. The Bill of Rights passed in 1791 to limit the federal government. A rivalry developed between [[Alexander Hamilto]]n, who favored a strong national government, and [[Thomas Jefferson]], who favored states’ rights.

[[Alexander Hamilton]]: federal government has whatever powers are not denied to it (e.g., power to establish a national bank, by virtue of the “elastic” or “necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution).
Jefferson: federal government only has the powers expressly given it.

[[John Adams]], born to a prosperous farmer in Massachusetts, became president after Washington, and served just one term (four years). His presidency was a failure. Symbolic of his failure was his signing of the Alien & Sedition Acts, which made it a crime to criticize him! Jefferson and Madison responded with strong state resolutions (Kentucky and Virginia) to “nullify” or declare the Acts unconstitutional.

Debate: Can a State nullify an act of Congress? Can a State secede (withdraw) from the United States?

[[Category:United States History]]

American History Lecture One

2008-08-10T18:12:20Z

Ashleys: /* Periods in American History */

Welcome to "American history," also known as "United States history." This is likely to become your favorite course. It has something for everyone: heroes, villains, criminal trials, comical mistakes, competitions, politics, literature, gold, silver, war, and peace. You name it, American history has it. We are going to have some fun in this course.
 
We will start without a textbook, to encourage students to be more proactive in learning history. If we can find a good textbook or reference source, then we'll distribute it a few weeks into the course.
 
The Pilgrims came to America with a group not much bigger than our class, traveling in a boat called the "Mayflower" that was not much larger than our classroom. Just before arriving on shore, the Pilgrims agreed to a written agreement or "compact" to bind them after they arrived. The very first words of their "[[Mayflower Compact]]" were "In ye name of God Amen."
 
Just as our Nation's founders started with a prayer, so do we. Prayer clears out the noise in our minds. We are looking for knowledge and inspiration here, and that comes from God. In most countries parents do not have the freedom even to have a class like this. The main reason we have freedoms is because America was established on principles of liberty, and religious devotion in America remains among the strongest in the world today, as it was 250 years ago.
 
Today is a critical time in our nation's history, and this class may be as important to the future as the Mayflower voyage was. Let's begin.

== What Students Find Challenging About History ==

Students find the following aspects of American history challenging:

* interpreting political cartoons
* keeping facts in perspective and understanding how the relate to each other
* keeping the different periods of American history separate, yet connected; seeing the trends
* understanding the importance of economic issues in shaping history
* improving speed in reading and retaining historical information, such as answering history questions quickly
* dealing with [[liberal]] bias in textbooks and the selection and presentation of questions on College Board exams:
** denial of [[Christian]] and [[conservative]] achievement
** overemphasis on [[liberal]]s and their beliefs, and denial of their failures
** obsession with materialism and inborn characteristics like race and gender

Common mistakes by students in history courses include:

* failure to recognize that American politics is always a battle between two sides
* memorizing dates without understanding the sequence of events (exams rarely ask about dates, but do ask about sequence)
* getting bogged down in detail and failing to see the big picture
* misunderstanding questions
* forgetting that people in the past were similar in nature to people today; they were motivated by religion, money, power, etc., and laziness has always been a problem

== The Key to Mastering History ==

The key to mastering history is to find what you like and understand, and then use it as your foundation to learn everything else. In other words, first find and learn what you like, and then learn everything else by connecting it to what you know. Use the same technique that we all use to for directions: pick a landmark or a place that you know how to get to, and then figure out how to go from there to where you need to go.
 
For example, if you are most interested in religion, then learn about the 13 colonies based on their different attitudes towards religion. If you are most interested in one colony, then learn about it and how it relates to other colonies. If you like military history, then use that as your starting point.
 
Perhaps you like politics the most. In that case, you'll want to memorize the presidents and leaders of Congress, and relate historical events to their times in office. Or perhaps you enjoy legal issues, and reading about what the courts do. If so, then you'll want to focus your attention on the major rulings of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] throughout American history, and relate other historical events to those decisions.
 
On the SAT II U.S. History exam, the breakdown by subject matter is as follows:
 Political History - 32-36%
 Economic History - 18-20%
 Social History - 18-22%
 Cultural and Intellectual History - 10-12%
 Foreign Policy - 13-17%

The biggest part of the exam by far is politics, mostly concerning what happened in the federal government in [[Washington, D.C.]].

== Bias in American History ==

Every student in the [[United States]] is supposed to take several courses in [[American History]]. As a result, how this subject is taught has a big influence on what Americans believe, and how they vote when they are older. Someone who is taught and believes that [[Bill Clinton]] or [[Jimmy Carter]] are great [[American]] heroes are more likely to vote [[Democratic]] than someone who learns that [[Ronald Reagan]] had a bigger and better impact than both of them combined. Going backwards in time, how the textbooks and teachers praise or criticize [[George Washington]] and [[Christopher Columbus]] can shape many students' minds both about America and about Christianity.

Bias is worth recognizing, and it can even be fun spotting the half-truths and misleading claims that are put in textbooks and exams to try to take students away from Christian truths and American patriotism. Our Honors track in this course will enable students to address bias they see in textbooks, Wikipedia, and other sources concerning American history.

== Periods in American History ==

American history can be broken into about 20 time periods:

* settlement by paleo-indians
* discovery by Europeans, exploration by Europeans and settlement by Europeans
* colonial
* birth of the nation
* growth of the nation
* Jacksonian Democracy
* pre-Civil War
* [[Civil War]]
* [[Reconstruction]]
* [[Gilded Age]]
* [[Imperialism]]
* [[World War I]]
* Roaring Twenties and followed by the [[Great Depression]]
* World War II
* [[Cold War]]
** Korean War
** Vietnam War
* Reagan [[conservatism]]
* Post-Reagan Prosperity and the dot-com boom
* [[9/11]] and terrorism

On the SAT II in U.S History, the breakdown of questions is like this:

 Pre-Columbian history to 1789 - 20%
 1790 to 1898 - 40%
 1899 to the present - 40%

Hence nearly half the exam is on the last century on the SAT II, and only about 18 or 19 questions are devoted to all of pre-exploration, exploration, settlements, the colonies, the documents that founded the nation, the American Revolution, and the election of George Washington. That means there are no more than 3 or so questions (out of a 90-95 questions on the exam) about the Mayflower Compact, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.

== Why America? ==

Maybe we could write most of American history just by predicting what would probably happen. Imagine a big chunk of land in between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. There are people who live on the land. Ask yourself: why would Europeans want to go there? What reasons can you think of?
 
Search for gold. Convert the natives to Christianity. Conquer the natives. Obtain freedom. Why do your parents homeschool? For some of the same reasons. Go there for the same reason people climb a mountain: because it is there! Escape where you are. Set up a special religious community. Meet new people and make new friends. Trade goods with the people. Learn from the people. Have adventures and then write about them.
 
What is likely to happen if a bunch of Europeans go this land? Conflicts with the natives. Conflicts with other European countries. Conflicts with the mother country that sent the settlers. New opportunities for improvements, for new products, for new businesses, for new religions, for new systems of government.
 
Who is going to pay for exploration and settlement? Kings. Investors. Do-gooders. Churches. Mostly nobody.
 
Who is going to do the hard labor needed to set up a new community, like chopping down trees, working the farms, constructing buildings? There is almost no money to pay anyone. Families might do some. [[Indentured servants]]. Slaves.
 
It also helps to look for unifying themes to organize events in your mind. One theme that helps explain American history works well is the overall expansion of Christianity, for 2000 years. Why did [[Christopher Columbus]] and other explorers risk their lives to come to the New World? To spread Christianity. Why did families then risk their lives to settle here? To establish religious communities free of persecution. Two hundred years later, why did Massachusetts prohibit slavery and why did abolitionists President [[John Quincy Adams]] devote their lives to ending slavery? Because their religious values told them slavery was wrong.
 
There are other possible themes also. How about the desire to make more money, or make some money? How about the urge for self-government, to be in charge of oneself free from a monarchy? How about the advance of technology and its affect on how we live? There are many possible themes to American history and we will have fun debates about them.
 
From 1789 until today, we have had an American President. He is not more important than others. If I had to name the ten most important Americans in history, I would only include one president in the list (the first one, [[George Washington]]). But memorizing the list of 43 presidents can help you organize all the other facts. When someone asks me what was happening in 1962, then I think of who was president and then remember the issues of that time. The presidents become like drawers, one per president, filled with issues and events.
 
But before 1789 there was no president. How are we going to organize that? One way is to focus on the three most important colonies, [[Virginia]] (1607), [[Massachusetts]] (1620) and [[Pennsylvania]] (1681), and relate the other 11 colonies and events to them. Another way is to look at the battles that occurred before the [[American Revolution]], such as the [[French and Indian War]] in 1754-60.
 
Regardless, by the end of this course, you will be able to hear an event and describe what was going on at that time. You will be able to tell me what happened before the event, and what happened afterwards.
 
Don’t try to memorize hundreds of dates. Instead, when you see a date, think what happened before and after it. There are only about ten dates that you need to know. All other dates, such as those in the event list, are there just for the purpose of ordering events. For example, no one will ask you when Georgia was founded as a colony. But you may be asked whether it was the first or last colony founded. (It was the last colony established.) Another example: [[Quebec]] was founded in 1608. Don’t remember the 1608, but remember that Quebec was founded one year after [[Jamestown]] was established (1607 – one of the few dates you should memorize!)
 
If you have a good memory, then memorize the facts. If memorization is difficult for you, then focus on the trends and movements in history. This course gives you four different ways to learn the material: (1) the lectures, (2) Conservapedia, (3) the event list and (4) the homework assignments. Different students will learn better from some approaches than others. It’s your job to find what works best for you. At the end your progress will be measured by multiple choice exams.
 
This class is a different approach to American history than most courses that take all year. Learning in a simple and quick manner can sometimes be better. It’s easier to see how events relate to each other. It’s easier to see the big picture. When you want to find your way somewhere, do you want a road map that has every single detail and building on it? No, that is too hard to read. You want a map that has the important things on it. Same with studying history: don’t allow yourself to be sidetracked by unimportant details. Focus on the big stuff.

== Pre-Columbian Period ==
The first settlers in America were paleo-indian peoples. Their origin is not known. Some claim they migrated from Asia, but that makes little sense because American Indians are very different in many ways from Chinese and Asian Indians. Even their blood types are typically different.

Some old mounds reflecting Indian settlements in America have been discovered, such as the Adena burial mounds and Mississippian platform towns.<ref>Melissa L. Meyer, Dean R. Snow, Charles L. Cohen, Russell Thornton, Donald A. Grinde Jr., Leah Dilworth "Indian History and Culture" The Oxford Companion to United States History. Paul S. Boyer, ed. Oxford University Press 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. University of Tampa. 4 August 2008 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t119.e0758-s0002></ref> For example, the [[Cahokia Mounds]] in Southern Illinois (just east of [[St. Louis]] reflect an Indian community dating back as early as A.D. 1000 or 1100.<ref>http://www.cahokiamounds.com/mystery_01.html</ref> That community practiced human sacrifice, as did the [[Aztecs]] and [[Mayans]] in [[Mesoamerica]] (Mexico and Central America) prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquerors.

Since about 1970 textbooks have claimed that around A.D. 1000, the Scandinavian [[Leif Ericson]] established a small colony at [[Vinland]], where the present [[Newfoundland]] is (north of Maine). But there is very little evidence that such a colony existed, and no explanation for what happened to it. It did not last long even if it did exist, and there is no sign of any Viking colony in what is now the United States.<ref>"People have been looking hard for hundreds of years and there is no archaeological evidence in this part [New England]— it's certainly possible, the Vikings were incredible boat handlers — '''but there is no evidence'''," observed one university history professor.[http://farshores.org/a04viki.htm]</ref>.

''Exam note'': there is a most one or two questions about the Pre-Columbian period on any American history exam.

== Exploration ==

Starting in the Middle Ages, Christian Europe began to use its knowledge, wealth and [[faith]] to extend move beyond its horizons. Christian Europeans fought the Holy [[Crusades]] from 1095 to 1291 to protect pilgrims to [[Jerusalem]] against Moslem attacks. Some Europeans were motivated to spread the [[Gospel]]. Others were motivated by a desire to increase their wealth, such as by finding gold. Supporting both types of people was increased knowledge about science and geography: Europeans knew that they could reach the Orient by traveling West '''''around''''' the world. Ironically, it was the very knowledge of the Earth's circumference that deterred a westward passage - the distance to the orient in that direction was beyond the open-water range of ships in that period.
 
But centuries passed before one man inspired by the Christian [[faith]] was determined to change the world of his time. By the young age of 10 the Italian [[Christopher Columbus]] was working at sea, already on his way to becoming a master navigator and mariner. He learned of the patterns of the Atlantic trade winds, and their ability to carry sailing vessels across vast distances both eastward and westward before one's provisions would run out. With the charts he developed, he was certain he could reach Asia on a westbound route more efficiently than others could.
 
It took enormous courage, determination and financial support to sail West into the complete unknown. It also took more than a desire to get rich, because there were easier ways to make money. That additional desire was a passion to spread Christianity to new civilizations. In 1482, [[Christopher Columbus]] sought financing to sail west in order to find an easier way to reach the Far East, by sailing westward rather than continuing the different path eastward from Europe to India and Japan. Columbus tried Portugal for raising money, but it already had its own successful explorers. Portugal declined to support him, but Columbus persistently tried for ten more years. In 1492 Spain drove out the last of the Muslims and re-established it as a Christian nation, and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain granted Columbus's request for funding his voyage that year. Spain continues to honor Columbus Day just as the United States does.
 
Columbus was not only a devout Christian, but an enterprising capitalist. He used his hard-earned knowledge of the Atlantic trade winds and the navigational edge they gave him to secure funding for his venture from Spain on terms that gave him 10% of any riches discovered: The contract he signed with the Spanish Monarchy, known as the Capitulations of Santa Fe, named him Admiral of the Atlantic Ocean, Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands discovered, and gave him one-tenth of the profit from all of the discovered lands (Spain later refused to honor the agreement, and Columbus never became wealthy). Having secured his funding, Columbus assembled his ships and crew and set out in August of 1492 to reach the Orient.
 
So back to what Columbus did achieve. He set sail in three ships. First sighted land in late 1492. On Christmas eve, December 24, 1492, one of Columbus's ship, the [[Santa Maria]], reached the island of [[Haiti]]. Columbus named the settlement “La Navidad,” meaning “The Nativity,” and dropped off 40 men with a promise to return to them the next year. Columbus then wrote to the King and Queen of Spain the following in his Journal: “In all the world there can be no better or gentler people. Your Highnesses should feel great joy, because presently they will be Christians, and instructed in the good manners of your realms.”
 
But he had grossly underestimated the size of the world, and when he reached San Salvador, Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba he thought he reached the Far East. So he called the natives Indians. He left some men there but they were killed by the natives. Columbus reported back that new people had been found to evangelize with Christianity.
 
Soon Spain and Portugal divided the Americas with the [[Line of Demarcation]], drawn by the Pope. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] moved the line in 1493. It was a North-South line that gave Spain North America and the western part of South America, but Portugal received Brazil. That’s why Brazilians speak Portugese to this day.
 
<discuss how Columbus returned to Europe, and then found the same location on his second trip> Columbus sailed on three subsequent voyages, but never achieved his goal and died discredited. What was his motivation? Primarily to spread Christianity, but also to find gold to reward his sponsors and fund further expeditions. Ultimately, his purpose focused on a dream to liberate Jerusalem, as the Crusades attempted.
 
What influence did Columbus have? He gave Spain [[Haiti]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Jamaica]] and [[Cuba]] by 1515. Spain then settled Florida (St. Augustine), and later Santa Fe, New Mexico. Spanish [[Hernando Cortes]] conquered the Aztecs in central Mexico (1521), and [[Francisco Pizarro]] conquered the Incas of Peru (1531). They seized much gold in the process.
 
But while Spanish soldiers came to America, Spanish women did not. So there were not many distinct, permanent Spanish settlements. Also, the Spanish were also entirely subservient to their King back in Europe. Separate governments did not develop.
 
Other European powers were exploring North America also. The French explored the St. Lawrence and settled Quebec, where French is still spoken to this day. The French also explored the Mississippi, and settled the towns of Saint Louis (named after a French king) and New Orleans.
 
The Dutch explored and settled the Hudson River, and calling that region New Netherlands and buying and naming Manhattan New Amsterdam.
 
The Swedish settled in Delaware; Germans settled later in Pennsylvania.
 
Explorer [[John Cabot]] discovered the North American coastline for England in 1497. But no settlements were attempted by the English for about another 100 years.
 
The reason is that North America didn’t have what the explorers were looking for. America lacked valuable natural resources. There was no gold, which is what Europe wanted. In 1576, the British explorer [[Martin Frobisher]] even hauled 200 tons of material back to England, hoping it was gold. It wasn’t.
 
There wasn’t anything else of value to Europe either. New England was too rocky near the coast to develop farms. The mid-Atlantic region or Chesapeake area, where Maryland and Virginia are today, was infested with malaria. Winters were cold, and summers were hot.
 
There was no livestock – no horses and no cattle, until the Spanish imported them. Florida was a swamp, and did not even have orange trees until the Spanish explorer [[Ponce de Leon]] planted them in 1515.
 
North America was a joke to many in England. Its Parliament passed a law in 1597 authorizing the deportations of convicted criminals to America and other colonies. In 1605, a satirical book entitled “Eastward Ho!” was published that mocked attempts to settle in Virginia.
 
Think about it. Would your family uproot and move, at great risk to your lives, to a place that had no civilization or anything of value? Do we see families moving to the middle of the desert in Arizona, or to cheap land in the middle of Wyoming? Only very rarely.
 
England’s first settlement of North America was in 1585, on [[Roanoke Island]] in Virginia. More than 100 families settled there. In a few years they had all disappeared, and it’s a mystery to this day what happened. They could have died from disease or starvation. They could have been killed by Indians. No one knows. It’s called the “[[Lost Colony]].”
 
About the same time, however, England had a huge success in Europe. Spain had ruled the high seas for most of the 1500s, until England destroyed the Spanish Armada in 1588. That left England with the potential to gain control of the oceans and world trade over the seas. England could protect its colonies against other European powers.

== Settlements ==

Some Englishmen invested money in what was called a “[[joint stock company]],” which was similar to a modern-day corporation, for the purpose of finding gold or other treasures. Called the “[[Virginia Company]],” it established the first permanent settlement for England in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. It was a disaster and the investors never received a profit. The men who settled in Jamestown were gentlemen who expected to get rich with little effort. They lacked a common purpose and wasted their time searching for treasure, or simply doing nothing at all. Unwilling to work to grow their own food, they almost starved to death.
 
'''1607''' is one of the few dates you should memorize. This was after the Spanish had settled in Florida, but before the French had settled in Quebec. So remember the sequence in settling America: Spanish, English, and then French.
 
Initially, from 1607-1608, the Jamestown settlement lived under socialism, whereby the group shared its food with everyone no matter how much or little he worked. This economic system was a complete failure as no one had any incentive to do any work. In September 1608, [[John Smith]] was elected president of the governing council. He ruled for a year and installed a conservative economic system: “don’t work, don’t eat!” Under this new system, food production increased and by 1614 there was plenty to eat.
 
But Jamestown settlers were there to find fortune, and there was not any gold or silver. Indians had discovered tobacco and Europeans were beginning to become addicted on it. Many Europeans recognized that tobacco was bad for them, and some wanted to prohibit it. In 1613, Englishman [[John Rolfe]], who married the Indian [[Pocahontas]] in Virginia, began growing tobacco to export to Europe. The King banned the growing of tobacco in England, so Rolfe had no competition. Cash began pouring in for the tobacco, and this so-called “cash crop” became highly profitable for the Jamestown settlers. Tobacco continued to be very profitable throughout a large part of American history, particularly in the south.
 
Despite profiting from the sale of tobacco, the Jamestown settlement had other difficulties. It had made peace with Indian [[Chief Powhatan]], whose daughter Pocahontas married settler [[John Rolfe]]. But after Powhatan died, his brother led a sudden attack on the settlers in 1622, massacring 357 out of a total of only 1200.
 
But Indian strife was only one of many problems. Labor was in short supply for working the fields. Settlers began importing indentured servants, who received free travel to the colonies in exchange for a promise to work for seven years. But Virginia also turned to a cheaper approach to labor: importing slaves from West Africa beginning in 1619 to work the crops.
 
In 1624 King James (of “King James Bible” fame) took back the Virginia colony and established it as a royal charter. King James was left with a problem colony that enslaved workers and grew tobacco. More trouble lay ahead. In 1676, Nathanial Bacon was a Virginia settler who decided to take the law into his own hands. He first massacred Indians in western Virginia, then took his small army of rebels to Jamestown, where he burned it down because the governor had refused to allow him to kill the Indians. Bacon himself soon died from a disease. The governor returned and hung two dozen of his supporters. How Virginia produced four of our first five presidents is amazing. You can think about this and answer on the homework assignment.
 
By then there were many other settlements in North America. The most important were two settlements in Massachusetts, which has a much harsher climate than Virginia, particularly in the wintertime. But their motivation was religious, not financial. Puritans were unhappy with the direction of the Church of England, feeling it was too much like the Catholic Church. Two different groups of Puritans set out for North America. One group wanted to purify the Church of England by remaining in the Church but in a more perfect community. The other group wanted to separate completely from the Church of England. Both groups landed by chance within 100 miles of each other in Massachusetts.
 
The first group, the “Pilgrims”, set sail from Plymouth, England and intended to land near the mouth of the Hudson River (now New York City), which was the northern part of the Virginia Company’s territory. But their ship, the “Mayflower”, was blown off course and they landed up on Cape Cod in Massachusetts in 1620. Outside of any official government, they decided on the boat to establish the first civil government in North America by signing the Mayflower Compact. They landed in December, and half died due to disease in their first New England winter. But the following spring a friendly Indian introduced them to corn, or maize, the marvelous food discovered by Indians. They had a plentiful harvest that fall, and celebrated their first Thanksgiving with the Indians that fall. In 1623, their new Governor [[William Bradford]] gave every member a plot of land and allowed the free market to develop. By 1624, the community was doing so well that it was actually making more food than it could consume and began exporting its corn. [[William Bradford]] and [[Edward Winslow]] kept diaries during the settling of Plymouth, which are recorded in a small, but fascinating book called ''Mourt's Relation''.
 
Corn is a tremendous contribution by Indians to the world that increasingly sustains peoples worldwide. Corn did not exist in Europe during the Middle Ages. Cheap and easy to grow, corn has become one of the most popular foods worldwide, rivaling rice and soybeans. For that we can thank the Indians.
 
Encouraged by the success of the Pilgrims, a new groups called the [[Massachusetts Bay Company]] obtained a royal charter and sent a larger group of Puritans to settle in New England, though this time with the purpose of purifying the [[Church of England]] with a more perfect community than in England itself. It was well-financed and led by the very capable [[John Winthrop]], who had been trained at Oxford. It landed in Salem, Massachusetts in 1629 and immediately moved to Boston Harbor. It never looked back, thriving almost immediately despite the harsh winter climate. Within five years the [[Great Migration]] of religiously motivated settlers followed them from England. Their numbers and power grew. By the 1640s, the community was participating in robust trade by sea with England, the West Indies and on occasion West Africa.
 
What is a “colony”? “Colony” defined: “a body of people living in a new territory but retaining ties with the parent state.” (Merriam-Webster dictionary)
 
The growing colonies in Massachusetts and Virginia could not have been more different from each other, and it is remarkable they ever joined the same country. Massachusetts was highly religious and motivated by faith. Virginia was marginally religious and motivated by money. Massachusetts, more religious, had vocal opponents of slavery and neighboring Vermont was the first state to prohibit slavery in its Constitution, in 1777. Virginia welcomed slavery. Massachusetts grew the Indian crop of corn. Virginia grew the Indian crop of tobacco. Massachusetts settlers made greater efforts to get along with Indians and treat them fairly. Massachusetts attracted new settlers based on religion. Virginia attracted new settlers based on the “headright system,” by which land (usually 50 acres) was given to those who paid for the passage to the colony of an immigrant, who usually agreed to work as an “indentured servant” for free for fixed number of years on the land.
 
The stark contrast between Massachusetts and Virginia would ultimately lead, nearly 250 years later, to the Civil War.
 
While Virginia institution of slavery was spreading to the colonies of [[Maryland]], [[Carolina]] and, later, [[Georgia]], [[Massachusetts]] was spreading a different sort of institution: religious intensity. [[Roger Williams]] was an extraordinary individual of such great faith that found even the Puritans lacking in their treatment of Indians. Williams also disagreed with how the Puritans combined government and religion, and had even executed several Christians based on differences with the Puritan faith. Williams was fabulous with languages and learned to communicate with many different Indian tribes, and even lived with them at times in spite of the danger. He left the Puritans in Massachusetts and started the colony of Rhode Island, which to this day has prided itself on its independence. Rhode Island was the only state to refuse to support a colonial tax on imports after the Revolution, and the only colony to refuse to ratify the Constitution until long after [[George Washington]] was President. Rhode Island, under Roger Williams’ direction, separated state government from religion. No mandatory church attendance, and no funding of churches with tax revenues were allowed in Rhode Island.
 
But while Roger Williams was highly moral, others in Rhode Island made it the biggest importer of slaves in all the colonies. So censoring religion may have a price. In contrast, in the larger Massachusetts, taxes funded religious institutions for nearly 200 years, until at least the 1830s. It successfully prohibited slavery. Another devout Christian who disagreed with the Puritans and left them was named [[Anne Hutchinson]]. She, however, was later killed by Indians.
 
One prominent text claims, under “Rhode Island,” that “This belief [by Roger Williams] in the separation of church and state became a cornerstone of the American Constitution in 1787.” That is completely false. Roger Williams was long dead by 1787, and there is no separation of church and state in the Constitution. Rhode Island did not even send any representatives to draft the Constitution and it had no role in the drafting of the Bill of Rights. In fact, Rhode Island did not ratify the Constitution until after George Washington was elected president, and even then it took much arm-twisting to compel Rhode Island to ratify the Constitution. But some people want to keep religion out of government, and they refuse to admit that the First Amendment only prohibits the establishment of a national church by the government.
 
In between Massachusetts and Virginia there was a third approach: that taken by Pennsylvania. William Penn was another extraordinary Englishman. He converted to become a Quaker in England and began practicing that religion in violation of English law. He was arrested and prosecuted, but the jury refused to convict him. The king owed his father money, and gave the son what is today Pennsylvania. It was nothing but woods at the time. But William Penn founded his colony based on one principle: religious freedom for all. He advertised in Europe and attracted peoples of many nationalities in addition to the English.
 
Penn was very kind to the Indians and soon had the most popular colony in America. Philadelphia became America’s greatest city, surpassing Boston in population in the 1700s. Only Pennsylvania and Maryland survived in the long-term under private ownership. Virtually all the other colonies were eventually taken over by the King of England, often due to troubles that arose in the colony.
 
There were other colonies. Pennsylvania was founded over 50 years *after* Virginia and Massachusetts. Georgia was founded over 50 *years* after Pennsylvania, which means over 100 years after Virginia and Massachusetts. Philanthropist [[James Oglethorpe]] founded Savannah in Georgia in 1733 for poor debtors in jails of England. Also created a buffer colony between South Carolina and Spanish Florida. Oglethorpe was very religious and very strict. Too strict for the King, who took over the colony in 1751. The colony was not nearly as strong and developed as the other colonies, so the other colonies did not take it very seriously.
 
Topics for discussion:
*Were the Puritans right to banish (expel) people for religious reasons?
*Did the Vikings settle North America before Columbus did?
*Question about bias: why would some want to take credit away from Columbus, and how might they do it?
*What, if anything, was the significance of [[Bacon's Rebellion]]?
*What challenges would the [[Puritans]] face in maintaining their strongly religious culture in the 1600s and 1700s?

== A Word About College Board Exams ==

First, a word about College Board exams. This course will give you the foundation -- if you like -- for taking three different College Board exams (usually a student takes only one of the three): the [[CLEP]], the [[AP]], and the [[SAT II]].
 
The CLEP is a multiple-choice exam that is recognized by most (but not all) colleges as a way to earn college credit. It costs about $50 and is administered on computers at local colleges, usually once a month. It is the least biased of the three exams.
 
The AP, or Advanced Placement exam, is given only once a year in May at local high schools, and is more expensive. It includes both multiple-choice and essay questions, and is used by different colleges to give credit for courses. In 2009, the AP exam for U.S. History is scheduled for Friday, May 9.
 
The SAT II in American History is an inexpensive multiple-choice exam that takes only an hour and is given at high schools on Saturdays once a month, October through June. No college credit is given for it, but it is used for college applications to recognize achievement. The SAT II is the most biased of the three exams, and is known for emphasizing liberal culture and matters of race and gender. For example, the "cultural and intellectual history" portion seems important to the exam but actually it is mostly cultural rather than intellectual history, and the questions are liberal in nature (e.g., asking about an artist who liberals like). Also, what counts as "economic history" is not what you might expect. There are almost no questions about the [[conservative]] gold standard, for example, even though that issue the political scene throughout history (and was even an issue in [[Ron Paul]]'s campaign for presidency in 2008). Instead, questions about economic history on the SAT II are likely to be about unions, the treatment of workers, alleged corruption of big business, and gender and racial issues.
 
Notice what is missing on the College Board exams: military history. Unfortunately, many educators in the [[United States]] dislike the military, and that bias shows up on the exams. No questions are there about battles or key military strategies and decisions. The only time the military shows up on these exams is when they have a political impact, and then they qualify as political history.
 
Each of these College Board exams can be taken as often as one likes, though it is difficult to take the AP exam more than once because it is offered only once a year, and it is expensive to retake the CLEP exam. The SAT II, which is cheaper, is the easiest to take more than once and colleges only look at the highest score.
 There is absolutely no requirement to take any of these College Board exams as part of this course, and references to the exams are used more as a way of helping you see the "big picture," as in how much time should be spent on a particular period or historical topic. Our class has only two required, multiple-choice exams: a midterm and a final. This course will also help students improve their test-taking skills on multiple-choice exams. We will also have weekly homework assignments consisting of short-answer questions.
[[Category:United States History]]

American History Lecture One

2008-08-10T18:08:15Z

Ashleys:

Welcome to "American history," also known as "United States history." This is likely to become your favorite course. It has something for everyone: heroes, villains, criminal trials, comical mistakes, competitions, politics, literature, gold, silver, war, and peace. You name it, American history has it. We are going to have some fun in this course.
 
We will start without a textbook, to encourage students to be more proactive in learning history. If we can find a good textbook or reference source, then we'll distribute it a few weeks into the course.
 
The Pilgrims came to America with a group not much bigger than our class, traveling in a boat called the "Mayflower" that was not much larger than our classroom. Just before arriving on shore, the Pilgrims agreed to a written agreement or "compact" to bind them after they arrived. The very first words of their "[[Mayflower Compact]]" were "In ye name of God Amen."
 
Just as our Nation's founders started with a prayer, so do we. Prayer clears out the noise in our minds. We are looking for knowledge and inspiration here, and that comes from God. In most countries parents do not have the freedom even to have a class like this. The main reason we have freedoms is because America was established on principles of liberty, and religious devotion in America remains among the strongest in the world today, as it was 250 years ago.
 
Today is a critical time in our nation's history, and this class may be as important to the future as the Mayflower voyage was. Let's begin.

== What Students Find Challenging About History ==

Students find the following aspects of American history challenging:

* interpreting political cartoons
* keeping facts in perspective and understanding how the relate to each other
* keeping the different periods of American history separate, yet connected; seeing the trends
* understanding the importance of economic issues in shaping history
* improving speed in reading and retaining historical information, such as answering history questions quickly
* dealing with [[liberal]] bias in textbooks and the selection and presentation of questions on College Board exams:
** denial of [[Christian]] and [[conservative]] achievement
** overemphasis on [[liberal]]s and their beliefs, and denial of their failures
** obsession with materialism and inborn characteristics like race and gender

Common mistakes by students in history courses include:

* failure to recognize that American politics is always a battle between two sides
* memorizing dates without understanding the sequence of events (exams rarely ask about dates, but do ask about sequence)
* getting bogged down in detail and failing to see the big picture
* misunderstanding questions
* forgetting that people in the past were similar in nature to people today; they were motivated by religion, money, power, etc., and laziness has always been a problem

== The Key to Mastering History ==

The key to mastering history is to find what you like and understand, and then use it as your foundation to learn everything else. In other words, first find and learn what you like, and then learn everything else by connecting it to what you know. Use the same technique that we all use to for directions: pick a landmark or a place that you know how to get to, and then figure out how to go from there to where you need to go.
 
For example, if you are most interested in religion, then learn about the 13 colonies based on their different attitudes towards religion. If you are most interested in one colony, then learn about it and how it relates to other colonies. If you like military history, then use that as your starting point.
 
Perhaps you like politics the most. In that case, you'll want to memorize the presidents and leaders of Congress, and relate historical events to their times in office. Or perhaps you enjoy legal issues, and reading about what the courts do. If so, then you'll want to focus your attention on the major rulings of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] throughout American history, and relate other historical events to those decisions.
 
On the SAT II U.S. History exam, the breakdown by subject matter is as follows:
 Political History - 32-36%
 Economic History - 18-20%
 Social History - 18-22%
 Cultural and Intellectual History - 10-12%
 Foreign Policy - 13-17%

The biggest part of the exam by far is politics, mostly concerning what happened in the federal government in [[Washington, D.C.]].

== Bias in American History ==

Every student in the [[United States]] is supposed to take several courses in [[American History]]. As a result, how this subject is taught has a big influence on what Americans believe, and how they vote when they are older. Someone who is taught and believes that [[Bill Clinton]] or [[Jimmy Carter]] are great [[American]] heroes are more likely to vote [[Democratic]] than someone who learns that [[Ronald Reagan]] had a bigger and better impact than both of them combined. Going backwards in time, how the textbooks and teachers praise or criticize [[George Washington]] and [[Christopher Columbus]] can shape many students' minds both about America and about Christianity.

Bias is worth recognizing, and it can even be fun spotting the half-truths and misleading claims that are put in textbooks and exams to try to take students away from Christian truths and American patriotism. Our Honors track in this course will enable students to address bias they see in textbooks, Wikipedia, and other sources concerning American history.

== Periods in American History ==

American history can be broken into about 20 time periods:

* settlement by paleo-indians
* discovery by Europeans, exploration by Europeans and settlement by Europeans
* colonial
* birth of the nation
* growth of the nation
* Jacksonian Democracy
* pre-Civil War
* [[Civil War]]
* [[Reconstruction]]
* [[Gilded Age]]
* [[Imperialism]]
* World War I
* Roaring Twenties and followed by the [[Great Depression]]
* World War II
* [[Cold War]]
** Korean War
** Vietnam War
* Reagan [[conservatism]]
* Post-Reagan Prosperity and the dot-com boom
* [[9/11]] and terrorism

On the SAT II in U.S History, the breakdown of questions is like this:

 Pre-Columbian history to 1789 - 20%
 1790 to 1898 - 40%
 1899 to the present - 40%

Hence nearly half the exam is on the last century on the SAT II, and only about 18 or 19 questions are devoted to all of pre-exploration, exploration, settlements, the colonies, the documents that founded the nation, the American Revolution, and the election of George Washington. That means there are no more than 3 or so questions (out of a 90-95 questions on the exam) about the Mayflower Compact, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.

== Why America? ==

Maybe we could write most of American history just by predicting what would probably happen. Imagine a big chunk of land in between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. There are people who live on the land. Ask yourself: why would Europeans want to go there? What reasons can you think of?
 
Search for gold. Convert the natives to Christianity. Conquer the natives. Obtain freedom. Why do your parents homeschool? For some of the same reasons. Go there for the same reason people climb a mountain: because it is there! Escape where you are. Set up a special religious community. Meet new people and make new friends. Trade goods with the people. Learn from the people. Have adventures and then write about them.
 
What is likely to happen if a bunch of Europeans go this land? Conflicts with the natives. Conflicts with other European countries. Conflicts with the mother country that sent the settlers. New opportunities for improvements, for new products, for new businesses, for new religions, for new systems of government.
 
Who is going to pay for exploration and settlement? Kings. Investors. Do-gooders. Churches. Mostly nobody.
 
Who is going to do the hard labor needed to set up a new community, like chopping down trees, working the farms, constructing buildings? There is almost no money to pay anyone. Families might do some. [[Indentured servants]]. Slaves.
 
It also helps to look for unifying themes to organize events in your mind. One theme that helps explain American history works well is the overall expansion of Christianity, for 2000 years. Why did [[Christopher Columbus]] and other explorers risk their lives to come to the New World? To spread Christianity. Why did families then risk their lives to settle here? To establish religious communities free of persecution. Two hundred years later, why did Massachusetts prohibit slavery and why did abolitionists President [[John Quincy Adams]] devote their lives to ending slavery? Because their religious values told them slavery was wrong.
 
There are other possible themes also. How about the desire to make more money, or make some money? How about the urge for self-government, to be in charge of oneself free from a monarchy? How about the advance of technology and its affect on how we live? There are many possible themes to American history and we will have fun debates about them.
 
From 1789 until today, we have had an American President. He is not more important than others. If I had to name the ten most important Americans in history, I would only include one president in the list (the first one, [[George Washington]]). But memorizing the list of 43 presidents can help you organize all the other facts. When someone asks me what was happening in 1962, then I think of who was president and then remember the issues of that time. The presidents become like drawers, one per president, filled with issues and events.
 
But before 1789 there was no president. How are we going to organize that? One way is to focus on the three most important colonies, [[Virginia]] (1607), [[Massachusetts]] (1620) and [[Pennsylvania]] (1681), and relate the other 11 colonies and events to them. Another way is to look at the battles that occurred before the [[American Revolution]], such as the [[French and Indian War]] in 1754-60.
 
Regardless, by the end of this course, you will be able to hear an event and describe what was going on at that time. You will be able to tell me what happened before the event, and what happened afterwards.
 
Don’t try to memorize hundreds of dates. Instead, when you see a date, think what happened before and after it. There are only about ten dates that you need to know. All other dates, such as those in the event list, are there just for the purpose of ordering events. For example, no one will ask you when Georgia was founded as a colony. But you may be asked whether it was the first or last colony founded. (It was the last colony established.) Another example: [[Quebec]] was founded in 1608. Don’t remember the 1608, but remember that Quebec was founded one year after [[Jamestown]] was established (1607 – one of the few dates you should memorize!)
 
If you have a good memory, then memorize the facts. If memorization is difficult for you, then focus on the trends and movements in history. This course gives you four different ways to learn the material: (1) the lectures, (2) Conservapedia, (3) the event list and (4) the homework assignments. Different students will learn better from some approaches than others. It’s your job to find what works best for you. At the end your progress will be measured by multiple choice exams.
 
This class is a different approach to American history than most courses that take all year. Learning in a simple and quick manner can sometimes be better. It’s easier to see how events relate to each other. It’s easier to see the big picture. When you want to find your way somewhere, do you want a road map that has every single detail and building on it? No, that is too hard to read. You want a map that has the important things on it. Same with studying history: don’t allow yourself to be sidetracked by unimportant details. Focus on the big stuff.

== Pre-Columbian Period ==
The first settlers in America were paleo-indian peoples. Their origin is not known. Some claim they migrated from Asia, but that makes little sense because American Indians are very different in many ways from Chinese and Asian Indians. Even their blood types are typically different.

Some old mounds reflecting Indian settlements in America have been discovered, such as the Adena burial mounds and Mississippian platform towns.<ref>Melissa L. Meyer, Dean R. Snow, Charles L. Cohen, Russell Thornton, Donald A. Grinde Jr., Leah Dilworth "Indian History and Culture" The Oxford Companion to United States History. Paul S. Boyer, ed. Oxford University Press 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. University of Tampa. 4 August 2008 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t119.e0758-s0002></ref> For example, the [[Cahokia Mounds]] in Southern Illinois (just east of [[St. Louis]] reflect an Indian community dating back as early as A.D. 1000 or 1100.<ref>http://www.cahokiamounds.com/mystery_01.html</ref> That community practiced human sacrifice, as did the [[Aztecs]] and [[Mayans]] in [[Mesoamerica]] (Mexico and Central America) prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquerors.

Since about 1970 textbooks have claimed that around A.D. 1000, the Scandinavian [[Leif Ericson]] established a small colony at [[Vinland]], where the present [[Newfoundland]] is (north of Maine). But there is very little evidence that such a colony existed, and no explanation for what happened to it. It did not last long even if it did exist, and there is no sign of any Viking colony in what is now the United States.<ref>"People have been looking hard for hundreds of years and there is no archaeological evidence in this part [New England]— it's certainly possible, the Vikings were incredible boat handlers — '''but there is no evidence'''," observed one university history professor.[http://farshores.org/a04viki.htm]</ref>.

''Exam note'': there is a most one or two questions about the Pre-Columbian period on any American history exam.

== Exploration ==

Starting in the Middle Ages, Christian Europe began to use its knowledge, wealth and [[faith]] to extend move beyond its horizons. Christian Europeans fought the Holy [[Crusades]] from 1095 to 1291 to protect pilgrims to [[Jerusalem]] against Moslem attacks. Some Europeans were motivated to spread the [[Gospel]]. Others were motivated by a desire to increase their wealth, such as by finding gold. Supporting both types of people was increased knowledge about science and geography: Europeans knew that they could reach the Orient by traveling West '''''around''''' the world. Ironically, it was the very knowledge of the Earth's circumference that deterred a westward passage - the distance to the orient in that direction was beyond the open-water range of ships in that period.
 
But centuries passed before one man inspired by the Christian [[faith]] was determined to change the world of his time. By the young age of 10 the Italian [[Christopher Columbus]] was working at sea, already on his way to becoming a master navigator and mariner. He learned of the patterns of the Atlantic trade winds, and their ability to carry sailing vessels across vast distances both eastward and westward before one's provisions would run out. With the charts he developed, he was certain he could reach Asia on a westbound route more efficiently than others could.
 
It took enormous courage, determination and financial support to sail West into the complete unknown. It also took more than a desire to get rich, because there were easier ways to make money. That additional desire was a passion to spread Christianity to new civilizations. In 1482, [[Christopher Columbus]] sought financing to sail west in order to find an easier way to reach the Far East, by sailing westward rather than continuing the different path eastward from Europe to India and Japan. Columbus tried Portugal for raising money, but it already had its own successful explorers. Portugal declined to support him, but Columbus persistently tried for ten more years. In 1492 Spain drove out the last of the Muslims and re-established it as a Christian nation, and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain granted Columbus's request for funding his voyage that year. Spain continues to honor Columbus Day just as the United States does.
 
Columbus was not only a devout Christian, but an enterprising capitalist. He used his hard-earned knowledge of the Atlantic trade winds and the navigational edge they gave him to secure funding for his venture from Spain on terms that gave him 10% of any riches discovered: The contract he signed with the Spanish Monarchy, known as the Capitulations of Santa Fe, named him Admiral of the Atlantic Ocean, Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands discovered, and gave him one-tenth of the profit from all of the discovered lands (Spain later refused to honor the agreement, and Columbus never became wealthy). Having secured his funding, Columbus assembled his ships and crew and set out in August of 1492 to reach the Orient.
 
So back to what Columbus did achieve. He set sail in three ships. First sighted land in late 1492. On Christmas eve, December 24, 1492, one of Columbus's ship, the [[Santa Maria]], reached the island of [[Haiti]]. Columbus named the settlement “La Navidad,” meaning “The Nativity,” and dropped off 40 men with a promise to return to them the next year. Columbus then wrote to the King and Queen of Spain the following in his Journal: “In all the world there can be no better or gentler people. Your Highnesses should feel great joy, because presently they will be Christians, and instructed in the good manners of your realms.”
 
But he had grossly underestimated the size of the world, and when he reached San Salvador, Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba he thought he reached the Far East. So he called the natives Indians. He left some men there but they were killed by the natives. Columbus reported back that new people had been found to evangelize with Christianity.
 
Soon Spain and Portugal divided the Americas with the [[Line of Demarcation]], drawn by the Pope. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] moved the line in 1493. It was a North-South line that gave Spain North America and the western part of South America, but Portugal received Brazil. That’s why Brazilians speak Portugese to this day.
 
<discuss how Columbus returned to Europe, and then found the same location on his second trip> Columbus sailed on three subsequent voyages, but never achieved his goal and died discredited. What was his motivation? Primarily to spread Christianity, but also to find gold to reward his sponsors and fund further expeditions. Ultimately, his purpose focused on a dream to liberate Jerusalem, as the Crusades attempted.
 
What influence did Columbus have? He gave Spain [[Haiti]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Jamaica]] and [[Cuba]] by 1515. Spain then settled Florida (St. Augustine), and later Santa Fe, New Mexico. Spanish [[Hernando Cortes]] conquered the Aztecs in central Mexico (1521), and [[Francisco Pizarro]] conquered the Incas of Peru (1531). They seized much gold in the process.
 
But while Spanish soldiers came to America, Spanish women did not. So there were not many distinct, permanent Spanish settlements. Also, the Spanish were also entirely subservient to their King back in Europe. Separate governments did not develop.
 
Other European powers were exploring North America also. The French explored the St. Lawrence and settled Quebec, where French is still spoken to this day. The French also explored the Mississippi, and settled the towns of Saint Louis (named after a French king) and New Orleans.
 
The Dutch explored and settled the Hudson River, and calling that region New Netherlands and buying and naming Manhattan New Amsterdam.
 
The Swedish settled in Delaware; Germans settled later in Pennsylvania.
 
Explorer [[John Cabot]] discovered the North American coastline for England in 1497. But no settlements were attempted by the English for about another 100 years.
 
The reason is that North America didn’t have what the explorers were looking for. America lacked valuable natural resources. There was no gold, which is what Europe wanted. In 1576, the British explorer [[Martin Frobisher]] even hauled 200 tons of material back to England, hoping it was gold. It wasn’t.
 
There wasn’t anything else of value to Europe either. New England was too rocky near the coast to develop farms. The mid-Atlantic region or Chesapeake area, where Maryland and Virginia are today, was infested with malaria. Winters were cold, and summers were hot.
 
There was no livestock – no horses and no cattle, until the Spanish imported them. Florida was a swamp, and did not even have orange trees until the Spanish explorer [[Ponce de Leon]] planted them in 1515.
 
North America was a joke to many in England. Its Parliament passed a law in 1597 authorizing the deportations of convicted criminals to America and other colonies. In 1605, a satirical book entitled “Eastward Ho!” was published that mocked attempts to settle in Virginia.
 
Think about it. Would your family uproot and move, at great risk to your lives, to a place that had no civilization or anything of value? Do we see families moving to the middle of the desert in Arizona, or to cheap land in the middle of Wyoming? Only very rarely.
 
England’s first settlement of North America was in 1585, on [[Roanoke Island]] in Virginia. More than 100 families settled there. In a few years they had all disappeared, and it’s a mystery to this day what happened. They could have died from disease or starvation. They could have been killed by Indians. No one knows. It’s called the “[[Lost Colony]].”
 
About the same time, however, England had a huge success in Europe. Spain had ruled the high seas for most of the 1500s, until England destroyed the Spanish Armada in 1588. That left England with the potential to gain control of the oceans and world trade over the seas. England could protect its colonies against other European powers.

== Settlements ==

Some Englishmen invested money in what was called a “[[joint stock company]],” which was similar to a modern-day corporation, for the purpose of finding gold or other treasures. Called the “[[Virginia Company]],” it established the first permanent settlement for England in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. It was a disaster and the investors never received a profit. The men who settled in Jamestown were gentlemen who expected to get rich with little effort. They lacked a common purpose and wasted their time searching for treasure, or simply doing nothing at all. Unwilling to work to grow their own food, they almost starved to death.
 
'''1607''' is one of the few dates you should memorize. This was after the Spanish had settled in Florida, but before the French had settled in Quebec. So remember the sequence in settling America: Spanish, English, and then French.
 
Initially, from 1607-1608, the Jamestown settlement lived under socialism, whereby the group shared its food with everyone no matter how much or little he worked. This economic system was a complete failure as no one had any incentive to do any work. In September 1608, [[John Smith]] was elected president of the governing council. He ruled for a year and installed a conservative economic system: “don’t work, don’t eat!” Under this new system, food production increased and by 1614 there was plenty to eat.
 
But Jamestown settlers were there to find fortune, and there was not any gold or silver. Indians had discovered tobacco and Europeans were beginning to become addicted on it. Many Europeans recognized that tobacco was bad for them, and some wanted to prohibit it. In 1613, Englishman [[John Rolfe]], who married the Indian [[Pocahontas]] in Virginia, began growing tobacco to export to Europe. The King banned the growing of tobacco in England, so Rolfe had no competition. Cash began pouring in for the tobacco, and this so-called “cash crop” became highly profitable for the Jamestown settlers. Tobacco continued to be very profitable throughout a large part of American history, particularly in the south.
 
Despite profiting from the sale of tobacco, the Jamestown settlement had other difficulties. It had made peace with Indian [[Chief Powhatan]], whose daughter Pocahontas married settler [[John Rolfe]]. But after Powhatan died, his brother led a sudden attack on the settlers in 1622, massacring 357 out of a total of only 1200.
 
But Indian strife was only one of many problems. Labor was in short supply for working the fields. Settlers began importing indentured servants, who received free travel to the colonies in exchange for a promise to work for seven years. But Virginia also turned to a cheaper approach to labor: importing slaves from West Africa beginning in 1619 to work the crops.
 
In 1624 King James (of “King James Bible” fame) took back the Virginia colony and established it as a royal charter. King James was left with a problem colony that enslaved workers and grew tobacco. More trouble lay ahead. In 1676, Nathanial Bacon was a Virginia settler who decided to take the law into his own hands. He first massacred Indians in western Virginia, then took his small army of rebels to Jamestown, where he burned it down because the governor had refused to allow him to kill the Indians. Bacon himself soon died from a disease. The governor returned and hung two dozen of his supporters. How Virginia produced four of our first five presidents is amazing. You can think about this and answer on the homework assignment.
 
By then there were many other settlements in North America. The most important were two settlements in Massachusetts, which has a much harsher climate than Virginia, particularly in the wintertime. But their motivation was religious, not financial. Puritans were unhappy with the direction of the Church of England, feeling it was too much like the Catholic Church. Two different groups of Puritans set out for North America. One group wanted to purify the Church of England by remaining in the Church but in a more perfect community. The other group wanted to separate completely from the Church of England. Both groups landed by chance within 100 miles of each other in Massachusetts.
 
The first group, the “Pilgrims”, set sail from Plymouth, England and intended to land near the mouth of the Hudson River (now New York City), which was the northern part of the Virginia Company’s territory. But their ship, the “Mayflower”, was blown off course and they landed up on Cape Cod in Massachusetts in 1620. Outside of any official government, they decided on the boat to establish the first civil government in North America by signing the Mayflower Compact. They landed in December, and half died due to disease in their first New England winter. But the following spring a friendly Indian introduced them to corn, or maize, the marvelous food discovered by Indians. They had a plentiful harvest that fall, and celebrated their first Thanksgiving with the Indians that fall. In 1623, their new Governor [[William Bradford]] gave every member a plot of land and allowed the free market to develop. By 1624, the community was doing so well that it was actually making more food than it could consume and began exporting its corn. [[William Bradford]] and [[Edward Winslow]] kept diaries during the settling of Plymouth, which are recorded in a small, but fascinating book called ''Mourt's Relation''.
 
Corn is a tremendous contribution by Indians to the world that increasingly sustains peoples worldwide. Corn did not exist in Europe during the Middle Ages. Cheap and easy to grow, corn has become one of the most popular foods worldwide, rivaling rice and soybeans. For that we can thank the Indians.
 
Encouraged by the success of the Pilgrims, a new groups called the [[Massachusetts Bay Company]] obtained a royal charter and sent a larger group of Puritans to settle in New England, though this time with the purpose of purifying the [[Church of England]] with a more perfect community than in England itself. It was well-financed and led by the very capable [[John Winthrop]], who had been trained at Oxford. It landed in Salem, Massachusetts in 1629 and immediately moved to Boston Harbor. It never looked back, thriving almost immediately despite the harsh winter climate. Within five years the [[Great Migration]] of religiously motivated settlers followed them from England. Their numbers and power grew. By the 1640s, the community was participating in robust trade by sea with England, the West Indies and on occasion West Africa.
 
What is a “colony”? “Colony” defined: “a body of people living in a new territory but retaining ties with the parent state.” (Merriam-Webster dictionary)
 
The growing colonies in Massachusetts and Virginia could not have been more different from each other, and it is remarkable they ever joined the same country. Massachusetts was highly religious and motivated by faith. Virginia was marginally religious and motivated by money. Massachusetts, more religious, had vocal opponents of slavery and neighboring Vermont was the first state to prohibit slavery in its Constitution, in 1777. Virginia welcomed slavery. Massachusetts grew the Indian crop of corn. Virginia grew the Indian crop of tobacco. Massachusetts settlers made greater efforts to get along with Indians and treat them fairly. Massachusetts attracted new settlers based on religion. Virginia attracted new settlers based on the “headright system,” by which land (usually 50 acres) was given to those who paid for the passage to the colony of an immigrant, who usually agreed to work as an “indentured servant” for free for fixed number of years on the land.
 
The stark contrast between Massachusetts and Virginia would ultimately lead, nearly 250 years later, to the Civil War.
 
While Virginia institution of slavery was spreading to the colonies of [[Maryland]], [[Carolina]] and, later, [[Georgia]], [[Massachusetts]] was spreading a different sort of institution: religious intensity. [[Roger Williams]] was an extraordinary individual of such great faith that found even the Puritans lacking in their treatment of Indians. Williams also disagreed with how the Puritans combined government and religion, and had even executed several Christians based on differences with the Puritan faith. Williams was fabulous with languages and learned to communicate with many different Indian tribes, and even lived with them at times in spite of the danger. He left the Puritans in Massachusetts and started the colony of Rhode Island, which to this day has prided itself on its independence. Rhode Island was the only state to refuse to support a colonial tax on imports after the Revolution, and the only colony to refuse to ratify the Constitution until long after [[George Washington]] was President. Rhode Island, under Roger Williams’ direction, separated state government from religion. No mandatory church attendance, and no funding of churches with tax revenues were allowed in Rhode Island.
 
But while Roger Williams was highly moral, others in Rhode Island made it the biggest importer of slaves in all the colonies. So censoring religion may have a price. In contrast, in the larger Massachusetts, taxes funded religious institutions for nearly 200 years, until at least the 1830s. It successfully prohibited slavery. Another devout Christian who disagreed with the Puritans and left them was named [[Anne Hutchinson]]. She, however, was later killed by Indians.
 
One prominent text claims, under “Rhode Island,” that “This belief [by Roger Williams] in the separation of church and state became a cornerstone of the American Constitution in 1787.” That is completely false. Roger Williams was long dead by 1787, and there is no separation of church and state in the Constitution. Rhode Island did not even send any representatives to draft the Constitution and it had no role in the drafting of the Bill of Rights. In fact, Rhode Island did not ratify the Constitution until after George Washington was elected president, and even then it took much arm-twisting to compel Rhode Island to ratify the Constitution. But some people want to keep religion out of government, and they refuse to admit that the First Amendment only prohibits the establishment of a national church by the government.
 
In between Massachusetts and Virginia there was a third approach: that taken by Pennsylvania. William Penn was another extraordinary Englishman. He converted to become a Quaker in England and began practicing that religion in violation of English law. He was arrested and prosecuted, but the jury refused to convict him. The king owed his father money, and gave the son what is today Pennsylvania. It was nothing but woods at the time. But William Penn founded his colony based on one principle: religious freedom for all. He advertised in Europe and attracted peoples of many nationalities in addition to the English.
 
Penn was very kind to the Indians and soon had the most popular colony in America. Philadelphia became America’s greatest city, surpassing Boston in population in the 1700s. Only Pennsylvania and Maryland survived in the long-term under private ownership. Virtually all the other colonies were eventually taken over by the King of England, often due to troubles that arose in the colony.
 
There were other colonies. Pennsylvania was founded over 50 years *after* Virginia and Massachusetts. Georgia was founded over 50 *years* after Pennsylvania, which means over 100 years after Virginia and Massachusetts. Philanthropist [[James Oglethorpe]] founded Savannah in Georgia in 1733 for poor debtors in jails of England. Also created a buffer colony between South Carolina and Spanish Florida. Oglethorpe was very religious and very strict. Too strict for the King, who took over the colony in 1751. The colony was not nearly as strong and developed as the other colonies, so the other colonies did not take it very seriously.
 
Topics for discussion:
*Were the Puritans right to banish (expel) people for religious reasons?
*Did the Vikings settle North America before Columbus did?
*Question about bias: why would some want to take credit away from Columbus, and how might they do it?
*What, if anything, was the significance of [[Bacon's Rebellion]]?
*What challenges would the [[Puritans]] face in maintaining their strongly religious culture in the 1600s and 1700s?

== A Word About College Board Exams ==

First, a word about College Board exams. This course will give you the foundation -- if you like -- for taking three different College Board exams (usually a student takes only one of the three): the [[CLEP]], the [[AP]], and the [[SAT II]].
 
The CLEP is a multiple-choice exam that is recognized by most (but not all) colleges as a way to earn college credit. It costs about $50 and is administered on computers at local colleges, usually once a month. It is the least biased of the three exams.
 
The AP, or Advanced Placement exam, is given only once a year in May at local high schools, and is more expensive. It includes both multiple-choice and essay questions, and is used by different colleges to give credit for courses. In 2009, the AP exam for U.S. History is scheduled for Friday, May 9.
 
The SAT II in American History is an inexpensive multiple-choice exam that takes only an hour and is given at high schools on Saturdays once a month, October through June. No college credit is given for it, but it is used for college applications to recognize achievement. The SAT II is the most biased of the three exams, and is known for emphasizing liberal culture and matters of race and gender. For example, the "cultural and intellectual history" portion seems important to the exam but actually it is mostly cultural rather than intellectual history, and the questions are liberal in nature (e.g., asking about an artist who liberals like). Also, what counts as "economic history" is not what you might expect. There are almost no questions about the [[conservative]] gold standard, for example, even though that issue the political scene throughout history (and was even an issue in [[Ron Paul]]'s campaign for presidency in 2008). Instead, questions about economic history on the SAT II are likely to be about unions, the treatment of workers, alleged corruption of big business, and gender and racial issues.
 
Notice what is missing on the College Board exams: military history. Unfortunately, many educators in the [[United States]] dislike the military, and that bias shows up on the exams. No questions are there about battles or key military strategies and decisions. The only time the military shows up on these exams is when they have a political impact, and then they qualify as political history.
 
Each of these College Board exams can be taken as often as one likes, though it is difficult to take the AP exam more than once because it is offered only once a year, and it is expensive to retake the CLEP exam. The SAT II, which is cheaper, is the easiest to take more than once and colleges only look at the highest score.
 There is absolutely no requirement to take any of these College Board exams as part of this course, and references to the exams are used more as a way of helping you see the "big picture," as in how much time should be spent on a particular period or historical topic. Our class has only two required, multiple-choice exams: a midterm and a final. This course will also help students improve their test-taking skills on multiple-choice exams. We will also have weekly homework assignments consisting of short-answer questions.
[[Category:United States History]]

Secretary of Transportation

2007-10-17T17:15:37Z

Ashleys: New page: The '''United States Secretary of transportation''' is in charge of the Department of Transportation. The secretary is a member of the president’s cabinet. The secretary is respo...

The '''[[United States]] Secretary of transportation''' is in charge of the [[Department of Transportation]]. The secretary is a member of the president’s cabinet. The secretary is responsible for: [http://www.faa.gov/ Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)], [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)],[http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/ Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA)],[http://www.fra.dot.gov/ Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)],[http://www.fta.dot.gov/ Federal Transit Administration (FTA)],[http://www.marad.dot.gov/ Maritime Administration (MARAD)],[http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/ National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)], [http://www.oig.dot.gov/ Office of Inspector General (OIG)],[http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/ Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA)],[http://www.rita.dot.gov/ Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA)],[http://www.seaway.dot.gov/ Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation (SLSDC)],[http://www.stb.dot.gov/ Surface Transportation Board (STB)].

== Secretary of transportion ==

Alan Stephenson Boyd: January 16, 1967 - January 20, 1969

John Anthony Volpe: January 22, 1969 - February 1, 1973

Claude Stout Brinegar: February 2, 1973 - February 1, 1975

John W. Barnum: February 2, 1975 - March 6, 1975

William Thaddeus Coleman, Jr.: March 7, 1975 - January 20, 1977

Brock Adams: January 23, 1977 - July 20, 1979

W. Graham Claytor, Jr.: July 21, 1979 - August 14, 1979

Neil Goldschmidt: August 15, 1979 - January 20, 1981

Andrew L. Lewis, Jr.: January 23, 1981 - February 1, 1983

Elizabeth Hanford Dole: February 7, 1983 - September 30, 1987

James H. Burnley IV: October 1, 1987 - December 2, 1987

James H. Burnley IV: December 2, 1987 - January 30, 1989

Samuel K. Skinner: February 6, 1989 - December 13, 1991

James B. Busey IV: December 14, 1991 - February 23, 1992

Andrew Card: February 24, 1992 - January 20, 1993

Federico Peña: January 21, 1993 - February 14, 1997

Rodney Slater: February 14, 1997 - January 20, 2001

Mortimer L. Downey: January 21, 2001 - January 24, 2001

Norman Mineta: January 25, 2001 - July 7, 2006

Maria Cino: July 8, 2006 – September 30, 2006

Mary Peters: September 30, 2006 – ''present''

== Refrences ==

[http://www.dot.gov/DOTagencies.htm 1]

[http://www.dot.gov/ost/ 2]

Secretary of Education

2007-10-10T17:04:51Z

Ashleys:

The [[United States]] '''Secretary of Education''' is the head of the Education Department. He or she establishes policy, administers, & coordinates federal aid to education at all levels. The Secretary of Education is also a member of the Presidents cabinet. Currently ''Margaret Spellings'' is the secretary of Education. Secretary Spellings has partnered with states to implement and enforce the ''No Child Left Behind Act'', which commits our schools to bringing all students up to grade level or better in reading and math by 2014.

== Previous Secretary’s of Education: ==

Shirley Hufstedler: ''November 30, 1979 - January 20, 1981''

Terrel Bell: ''January 22, 1981 - January 20, 1985''

William J. Bennett: ''February 6, 1985 – 1988''

Lauro Cavazos: ''September 20, 1988 - December 12, 1990''

Lamar Alexander: ''March 22, 1991 - January 20, 1993''

Richard Riley: ''January 21, 1993 - January 20, 2001''

Roderick Paige: ''January 20, 2001 - January 20, 2005''

Margaret Spellings: ''January 20, 2005 – present''

Secretary of Education

2007-10-10T16:56:16Z

Ashleys: New page: The United States '''Secretary of Education''' is the head of the Education Department. The Secretary of Education is also a member of the Presidents cabinet. Currently ''Margaret Spel...

The [[United States]] '''Secretary of Education''' is the head of the Education Department. The Secretary of Education is also a member of the Presidents cabinet. Currently ''Margaret Spellings'' is the secretary of Education. Secretary Spellings has partnered with states to implement and enforce the ''No Child Left Behind Act'', which commits our schools to bringing all students up to grade level or better in reading and math by 2014.

== Previous Secretary’s of Education: ==

Shirley Hufstedler: ''November 30, 1979 - January 20, 1981''

Terrel Bell: ''January 22, 1981 - January 20, 1985''

William J. Bennett: ''February 6, 1985 – 1988''

Lauro Cavazos: ''September 20, 1988 - December 12, 1990''

Lamar Alexander: ''March 22, 1991 - January 20, 1993''

Richard Riley: ''January 21, 1993 - January 20, 2001''

Roderick Paige: ''January 20, 2001 - January 20, 2005''

Margaret Spellings: ''January 20, 2005 – present''

User:Ashleys/Contest

2007-10-03T20:02:02Z

Ashleys: /* Day Two: */

== Team Galaxy ==

== Day Two: ==
'''New Entries:''' 
[[North africa]]- [[Special:WantedPages]]- '''13 Points''' 

[[University of Oklahoma]]- [[Special:WantedPages]]- '''13 points''' 

== Day Five ==

'''New Entries:''' 
[[University of Mississippi]]- [[Special:WantedPages]]- '''13 Points''' 

'''Approximate Total Points: 39'''

University of Mississippi

2007-10-03T20:00:04Z

Ashleys: New page: The main campus of the '''University of Mississippi''' is located in Oxford, Mississippi with three other branches in Booneville, Tupelo, and Southaven. It was founded in 1848. The Univers...

The main campus of the '''University of Mississippi''' is located in Oxford, Mississippi with three other branches in Booneville, Tupelo, and Southaven. It was founded in 1848. The University now has nine Academic divisions on its main campus including the College of Liberal Arts; the schools of Accountancy, Applied Sciences, Business Administration, Education, Engineering, Pharmacy and Law; and the Graduate School. The University of Mississippi was the first Public University in the state of Mississippi.

== The University Creed ==

The University of Mississippi is a community of learning dedicated to nurturing excellence in intellectual inquiry and personal character in an open and diverse environment. As a voluntary member of this community:

I believe in respect for the dignity of each person

I believe in fairness and civility

I believe in personal and professional integrity

I believe in academic honesty

I believe in academic freedom

I believe in good stewardship of our resources

I pledge to uphold these values and encourage others to follow my example.

== University Facts ==

'''Founded in:''' 1848

'''Colors:''' Cardinal and Navy Blue

'''Mascot:''' Colonel Reb

'''Sports Teams:''' The rebels

User:Ashleys/Contest

2007-09-30T01:46:10Z

Ashleys:

User:Ashleys/Contest

2007-09-30T01:45:47Z

Ashleys:

== Team Galaxy ==

== Day Two: ==
'''New Entries:''' 
[[North africa]]- [[Special:WantedPages]]- '''13 Points''' 

[[University_of_Oklahoma]]- [[Special:WantedPages]]- '''13 points''' 

'''Approximate Total Points: 26'''

User:Ashleys/Contest

2007-09-30T01:45:17Z

Ashleys:

== Team Galaxy ==

== Day Two: ==
'''New Entries:''' 
[[North africa]]-[[Special:WantedPages]]-'''13 Points''' 

[[University_of_Oklahoma]]-[[Special:WantedPages]]-'''13 points''' 

'''Approximate Total Points: 26'''

University of Oklahoma

2007-09-30T01:43:28Z

Ashleys: New page: The '''University of Oklahoma''' is located in Norman Oklahoma. It was established in 1890 and the first students enrolled in 1892. As of fall 2006 the university had 29,721 students and 2...

The '''University of Oklahoma''' is located in Norman Oklahoma. It was established in 1890 and the first students enrolled in 1892. As of fall 2006 the university had 29,721 students and 2,789 Faculty. The [[Princeton Review]] ranks OU among the Top 10 public universities in the nation in terms of academic excellence and cost for students. The school offers 160 master's programs, 152 baccalaureate programs, 20 majors at the first professional level, and 75 doctorate programs.

== University Presidents ==

David Ross Boyd: ''1892-1908''

A. Grant Evans: ''1908-1911''

Stratton D. Brooks: ''1912-1923''

James S. Buchanan: ''1924-1925''

William Bennett Bizzell: ''1926-1941''

Joseph A. Brandt: ''1941-1943''

George Lynn Cross: ''1943-1968''

John Herbert Hollomon: ''1968-1970''

Paul F. Sharp: ''1971-1977''

William S. Banowsky: ''1978-1984''

Frank E. Horton: ''1985-1988''

Richard Van Horn: ''1989-1993''

David Boren: ''1994-present''

== University Facts ==

'''Motto:''' ''Civi et reipublicae'' ("For the citizens and for the state")

'''Colors:''' Crimson and Cream

'''Mascot:''' Sooners

'''Website:''' www.ou.edu

[[Image:http://img222.imageshack.us/img222/1530/ousealjs7.png]]

== References ==

[http://www.ou.edu University of Oklahoma]

[http://www.visit.ou.edu/HTML/ Visit OU]

[http://www.ou.edu/provost/ir/Factbook_2007/HTML/07_1_32%20all%20hc.xls.htm University Enrollment]

North Africa

2007-09-29T18:13:38Z

Ashleys:

'''North [[Africa]]''' is located in the Worlds second largest continent Africa between the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], & the [[Red Sea]]. North Africa holds claim to seven territories including [[Algeria]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Sudan]], [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]], and the Western [[Sahara]]. North Africa is the northernmost region of the African Continent.

== Religion ==

Religions in North Africa include [[Baha'i]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], and some traditional African religions.

In Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco Islam is the dominate religion.

Most the People in Sudan are Christians, Islam’s, Animists, or Muslims.

Egypt is predominately Muslim.

== Geography ==

[[http://img263.imageshack.us/img263/9417/mapgeonorthic0.gif]]

The [[Atlas Mountains]] run through Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia.

The Sahara desert covers more than 90% of the region.

[[Rivers]] in Africa include::

[[The Nile River]] runs through Egypt & Sudan.
Atbarah River - Sudan & Ethiopia
Blue Nile - Sudan & Ethiopia
Didessa River - Ethiopia
White Nile - Sudan
Mountain Nile - Sudan
Draa River - Algeria & Morocco
Moulouya River - Morocco
Bou Regreg - Morocco
Oum Er-Rbia River - Morocco
Sebou River - Morocco

== Refrences ==

[http://www.warmafrica.com/index/geo/2/cat/1/a/g]

[http://www.africanculturalcenter.org/5_3languages_religion.html]

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa]

User:Ashleys/Contest

2007-09-29T14:47:12Z

Ashleys:

== Team Galaxy ==

== Day Two: ==
'''New Entries:''' 
[[North africa]]-[[Special:WantedPages]]-'''13 Points''' 

'''Approximate Total Points: 13'''

User:Ashleys/Contest

2007-09-29T14:46:00Z

Ashleys: New page: == Team Galaxy == == Day Two: == '''New Entries:''' North Africa-Special:WantedPages-'''13 Points''' '''Approximate Total Points: 13'''

== Team Galaxy ==

== Day Two: ==
'''New Entries:''' 
[[North Africa]]-[[Special:WantedPages]]-'''13 Points''' 

'''Approximate Total Points: 13'''

North Africa

2007-09-29T14:41:01Z

Ashleys: New page: '''North Africa''' is located in the Worlds second largest continent Africa between the North Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, & the Red Sea. North Africa holds claim to ...

User talk:Ashleys

2007-09-25T14:15:40Z

Ashleys: /* Team Contest */

Ashley,

Good posting on Jerry Rawlings! Well done. --[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 13:26, 16 January 2007 (EST)

Great entry on the [[Copyright Clause]]! In Christ,--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 16:30, 14 September 2007 (EDT)

Hello Ashley, you probably don't know me yet. I'm in course. On [[Contest|this]] page, a record of the page you edited and the points you have are kept. You should keep updating it so that Mr. Schlafly know what you've done. A point system is also found on this page. Good Luck!--[[User:BethanyS|Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 15:51, 19 September 2007 (EDT)

==Team Contest==

I would like to have you on my team for the upcoming [[contest]]. Please let me know ASAP if you will be able to participate. ~ [[User:SharonS|Sharon]][[User talk:SharonS|Talk]] 06:45, 24 September 2007 (EDT)

I would love to be on your team! Thanks for asking me!
[[User:Ashleys|Ashleys]] 10:15, 25 September 2007 (EDT)

Contest

2007-09-24T15:48:30Z

Ashleys:

This is the contest page for Conservapedia editors and students. The latest period began Thursday, Sept. 13, at 6 pm. Please add tallies for yourself or others. The point system is set forth below.

This is open to all, not merely students in a class.

'''Congratulations to the winners and runners-up!!!'''

Contest winners and new team captains:

*Tash
*SharonS

Runners-up:

*JessicaS
*DeborahB.

== Contributors ==

These totals need only be approximate:
*Aschlafly (as of Sept. 20, 10:31pm)
**quality new entries: 2
**ordinary new entries: 44
**improved existing entries: 48
**add link: 1
**add terms to [[American Government Terms]]: 4
**undeadend: 25
***Approximate point total: 432

*Tash (as of Sept. 16, 2:46pm)
**quality new entries: 2
**ordinary new entries: 8
**Quality edit of an existing entry:3
**improved existing entries: 116
***Approximate point total: 298

*Crocoite (as of Sept .23, 4:51am)
**See complete edit summary [[User:Crocoite/Contest2|here]]
***Approximate point total: 213

*SharonS (as of Sept. 18, 8:36am)
**See complete edit summary [[User:SharonS/Contest|here]]
***Approximate point total: 193

*JessicaS (as of Sept. 20, 6:54pm)
**unique links to [[American Government Lecture Two]]: 45 (90 points)
**duplicate links to [[American Government Lecture Two]]: 97 (97 points)
***Approximate point total: 187

*DeborahB.
**quality new entry: 1 (including first two cases in [[U.S. Supreme Court Cases]]
**add terms to [[American Government Terms]]:76
**ordinary new entries: 11
**quality edit of an existing entry:10 (including 9 new cases in [[U.S. Supreme Court Cases]]
***Approximate point total: 154

*BethanyS (as of Sept. 16, 1:30pm)
**quality new entries: 1
**ordinary new entries: 8
**Added to [[American Government Terms]] list: 64
***Approximate point total: 90

*Katieb (as of Sept. 16, 10:54pm)
**quality new entries: 3
**ordinary new entries: 6
**improved existing entries: 2
***Approximate point total: 72

*Ashleys (as of Sept. 20, 2:16pm)
**quality new entries: 3
**&Ordinary new entries:
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 2
***Approximate point total: 58

*Mer (as of 9:50pm)
**Quality new entries: 2
**Ordinary new entries: 2
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 3
**Added links: 5
**Added category: 1
***Approximate point total: 52

*Ambers (as of Sept. 21, 11:25am)
**ordinary new entries: 5
**added links: 2
**quality new entries: 1
***Approximate point total: 52

*RachelN (as of Sept. 20, 3:55pm)
**ordinary new entries: 1
**quality new entries: 3
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 2
***Approximate point total: 42

*Additioner (as of Sept. 16, 2:42pm)
**quality new entries:
**ordinary new entries: 5
**improved existing entries: 6
**undeadend:
***Approximate point total: 42

*SPierce (as of Sept. 19 5:30pm)
**Quality New Entries: 1
**ordinary new entries: 3
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 4
***Approximate point total: 37

*Rbeach (as of Sept. 16, 11 am)
**quality new entries: 3
***Approximate point total: 30

*Joe B (as of Sept. 18, 2pm)
**quality new entries: 1
***Approximate point total: 10

== Point System ==

*Quality new entry: '''10 points'''
**A "quality new entry" includes at least two full-length paragraphs, three relevant citations, several links to other entries, some in-depth content and designations of category. Partial credit is awarded.

*An ordinary new entry: '''6 points'''
**An additional bonus of '''3 points''' is awarded for adding a new entry on the "most-wanted" list, [[Special:Wantedpages]]

*Quality edit of an existing entry: '''4 points'''
**A "quality edit" to an existing article includes at least two extra sentences, an additional reference, and the inclusion of an important or relevant fact.
**Minor edit, such as a correction, of an existing entry: '''2 points'''

*Adding a unique working link within [[American Government Lectures]]: '''2 points'''
**Adding a additional (non-unique) working links for the same term within the same [[American Government Lectures|American Government Lecture]]: '''1 point'''

*Adding a working link within any entry in [[:Category:United States Government]]: '''1 point'''

*Adding two new terms to [[American Government Terms]]: '''1 point'''

*An additional bonus of 1 point is awarded for adding a link to an entry on the [[Special:Deadendpages]], and thereby removing that entry from that list

[[category:Conservapedia]]
[[category:education]]

Suction abortion

2007-09-24T15:46:12Z

Ashleys: New page: '''Suction aspiration''' is a form of abortion where the abortionist first numbs or paralyzes the cervix. Then he uses dilators to open the cervix. He then inserts a hollow tube with a...

'''Suction aspiration''' is a form of [[abortion]] where the abortionist first numbs or paralyzes the cervix. Then he uses dilators to open the cervix. He then inserts a hollow tube with a very sharp tip into the uterus. The tube is connected to a powerful pump with a very strong suction force. The procedure tears the body into pieces. The placenta is then cut from the inner wall of the uterus and the scraps are sucked out through the hose into a bottle. This procedure usually takes about 15 minutes. This type of [[abortion]] is used for most first trimester abortions in many countries.

== Refrences==

[http://www.abortiontv.com/Methods/themanyways.htm]

Composer

2007-09-21T01:39:55Z

Ashleys: Removing all content from page

Composer

2007-09-21T01:39:10Z

Ashleys: /* Resources */

A composer is defined by the Meriam-Webster online dictionary as "a person who writes music". More specifically, a composer writes the music to be preformed by the musician. Though a composer can refer to anyone who writes music, the term is more commonly associated with European classical music, then the pop culture music genre of today (a person who writes music of this genre would be called a "songwriter" as opposed to a composer). A person who writes songs for movies, plays, etc. is reffered to as a composer today. Also there is an imerging genre of modern instumental music known as [[New Age]] that is written by composers.

Famous composers of old Europe include Ludwig Van [[Beethoven]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], George Frideric [[Handel]] and [[Frédéric Chopin]]. Two modern day composers are [[John Williams]] and New Age composer [[Yanni]].

Composers are more interested in the actual music than fame or fotune, as opposed to many modern day musicians. This quote by Ludvig Van Beethoven shows the respect that composers in general have for the music they write:

Music is the one incorporeal entrance into the higher world of knowledge which comprehends mankind but which mankind cannot comprehend.
-- Ludwig van Beethoven, quoted by Bettina von Arnin, letter to Goethe, 1810

Composer

2007-09-21T01:38:20Z

Ashleys: New page: A composer is defined by the Meriam-Webster online dictionary as "a person who writes music". More specifically, a composer writes the music to be preformed by the musician. Though a comp...

University of Tennessee

2007-09-21T00:55:15Z

Ashleys:

The University of Tennessee’s predecessor was established in Knoxville on September 10, 1794, two years before Tennessee became a state.

In the beginning The University of Tennessee [UT] was known as Blount College, and had an all male student body. The first female students were accepted in 1982. From then on UT was home to a coed student body.

The college was renamed in 1807 to East Tennessee College and again in 1840 to East Tennessee University.

During the [[American Civil War]] the university was obligated to close, and the buildings were used as a hospital for the soldiers. East Tennessee University reopened after the war.

At present, the Knoxville campus is home to over 25,000 students.

== References ==

[http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/history.shtml {1}]
[http://web.utk.edu/~mklein/brfhist.html {2}]

Contest

2007-09-21T00:51:27Z

Ashleys: /* Contributors */

This is the contest page for Conservapedia editors and students. The latest period began Thursday, Sept. 13, at 6 pm. Please add tallies for yourself or others. The point system is set forth below.

This is open to all, not merely students in a class.

'''On Friday, September 21, we will assign team captains to pick teams.'''

== Contributors ==

These totals need only be approximate:
*Aschlafly (as of Sept. 19, 11:26pm)
**quality new entries: 2
**ordinary new entries: 44
**improved existing entries: 45
**add link: 1
**add terms to [[American Government Terms]]: 4
**undeadend: 20
***Approximate point total: 421

*Tash (as of Sept. 16, 2:46pm)
**quality new entries: 2
**ordinary new entries: 6
**Quality edit of an existing entry:3
**improved existing entries: 113
***Approximate point total: 284

*JessicaS (as of Sept. 20, 6:54pm)
**unique links to [[American Government Lecture Two]]: 45 (90 points)
**duplicate links to [[American Government Lecture Two]]: 97 (97 points)
***Approximate point total: 187

*SharonS (as of Sept. 18, 8:36am)
**See complete edit summary [[User:SharonS/Contest|here]]
***Approximate point total: 103

*BethanyS (as of Sept. 16, 1:30pm)
**quality new entries: 1
**ordinary new entries: 8
**Added to [[American Government Terms]] list: 64
***Approximate point total: 90

*Crocoite (as of Sept .19, 8:01pm)
**See complete edit summary [[User:Crocoite/Contest2|here]]
***Approximate point total: 78

*Katieb (as of Sept. 16, 10:54pm)
**quality new entries: 3
**ordinary new entries: 6
**improved existing entries: 2
***Approximate point total: 72

*Mer (as of 9:50pm)
**Quality new entries: 2
**Ordinary new entries: 2
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 3
**Added links: 5
**Added category: 1
***Approximate point total: 52

*Ashleys (as of Sept. 16, 2:16pm)
**quality new entries: 2
**&Ordinary new entries:
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 1
***Approximate point total: 45

*Ambers (as of Sept. 14, 4:40pm)
**ordinary new entries: 5
**added links: 2
**quality new entries: 1
***Approximate point total: 43

*Additioner (as of Sept. 16, 2:42pm)
**quality new entries:
**ordinary new entries: 5
**improved existing entries: 6
**undeadend:
***Approximate point total: 42

*DeborahB.
**add terms to [[American Government Terms]]:76
***Approximate point total: 38

*SPierce (as of Sept. 19 5:30pm)
**Quality New Entries: 1
**ordinary new entries: 3
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 4
***Approximate point total: 37

*Rbeach (as of Sept. 16, 11 am)
**quality new entries: 3
***Approximate point total: 30

*RachelN (as of Sept. 17, 3:55pm)
**ordinary new entries: 1
**quality new entries: 2
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 1
***Approximate point total: 29

*Joe B (as of Sept. 18, 2pm)
**quality new entries: 1
***Approximate point total: 10

== Point System ==

*Quality new entry: '''10 points'''
**A "quality new entry" includes at least two full-length paragraphs, three relevant citations, several links to other entries, some in-depth content and designations of category. Partial credit is awarded.

*An ordinary new entry: '''6 points'''
**An additional bonus of '''3 points''' is awarded for adding a new entry on the "most-wanted" list, [[Special:Wantedpages]]

*Quality edit of an existing entry: '''4 points'''
**A "quality edit" to an existing article includes at least two extra sentences, an additional reference, and the inclusion of an important or relevant fact.
**Minor edit, such as a correction, of an existing entry: '''2 points'''

*'''Adding a working link within [[American Government Lectures]]: 2 points'''

*'''Adding a working link within any entry in [[:Category:United States Government]]: 1 point'''

*'''Adding two new terms to [[American Government Terms]]: 1 point'''

*'''An additional bonus of 1 point is awarded for adding a link to an entry on the [[Special:Deadendpages]], and thereby removing that entry from that list'''

[[category:Conservapedia]]
[[category:education]]

University of Tennessee

2007-09-21T00:48:53Z

Ashleys: New page: The University of Tennessee’s predecessor was established in Knoxville on September 10, 1794, two years before Tennessee became a state. In the beginning The University of Tennessee [U...

The University of Tennessee’s predecessor was established in Knoxville on September 10, 1794, two years before Tennessee became a state.

In the beginning The University of Tennessee [UT] was known as Blount College, and had an all male student body. The first female students were accepted in 1982. From then on UT was home to a coed student body.

The college was renamed in 1807 to East Tennessee College and again in 1840 to East Tennessee University.

During the Civil war the university was obligated to close, and the buildings were used as a hospital for the soldiers. East Tennessee University reopened after the war.

At present, the Knoxville campus is home to over 25,000 students.

Contest

2007-09-19T19:54:15Z

Ashleys:

This is the contest page for Conservapedia editors and students. The latest period began Thursday, Sept. 13, at 6 pm. Please add tallies for yourself or others. The point system is set forth below.

This is open to all, not merely students in a class.

'''On Friday, September 21, we will assign team captains to pick teams.'''

== Contributors ==

These totals need only be approximate:
*Aschlafly (as of Sept. 19, 1:28am)
**quality new entries: 2
**ordinary new entries: 44
**improved existing entries: 43
**add link: 1
**add terms to [[American Government Terms]]: 4
**undeadend: 20
***Approximate point total: 415

*SharonS (as of Sept. 18, 8:36am)
**See complete edit summary [[User:SharonS/Contest|here]]
***Approximate point total: 103

*Tash (as of Sept. 16, 2:46pm)
**improved existing entries: 50
***Approximate point total: 100

*BethanyS (as of Sept. 16, 1:30pm)
**quality new entries: 1
**ordinary new entries: 8
**Added to [[American Government Terms]] list: 64
***Approximate point total: 90

*Katieb (as of Sept. 16, 10:54pm)
**quality new entries: 3
**ordinary new entries: 6
**improved existing entries: 2
***Approximate point total: 72

*Additioner (as of Sept. 16, 2:42pm)
**quality new entries:
**ordinary new entries: 5
**improved existing entries: 6
**undeadend:
***Approximate point total: 42

*Crocoite (as of Sept .19, 9:00am)
**See complete edit summary [[User:Crocoite/Contest2|here]]
***Approximate point total: 42

*Rbeach (as of Sept. 16, 11 am)
**quality new entries: 3
***Approximate point total: 30

*RachelN (as of Sept. 17, 3:55pm)
**ordinary new entries: 1
**quality new entries: 2
**Added to [[Special:Wantedpages]]: 1
***Approximate point total: 29

*Ashleys (as of Sept. 16, 2:16pm)
**quality new entries: 2
**Ordinary new entries:2
***Approximate point total: 32

*Ambers (as of Sept. 14, 4:40pm)
**ordinary new entries: 3
**quality new entries: 0
***Approximate point total: 18

*SPierce (as of Sept. 16, 11:40pm)
**ordinary new entries: 3
**improved existing entries: 1
***Approximate point total: 16

*Joe B (as of Sept. 18, 2pm)
**quality new entries: 1
***Approximate point total: 10

== Point System ==

*Quality new entry: '''10 points'''
**A "quality new entry" includes at least two full-length paragraphs, three relevant citations, several links to other entries, some in-depth content and designations of category. Partial credit is awarded.

*An ordinary new entry: '''6 points'''
**An additional bonus of '''3 points''' is awarded for adding a new entry on the "most-wanted" list, [[Special:Wantedpages]]

*Quality edit of an existing entry: '''4 points'''
**A "quality edit" to an existing article includes at least two extra sentences, an additional reference, and the inclusion of an important or relevant fact.
**Minor edit, such as a correction, of an existing entry: '''2 points'''

*'''Adding a working link within [[American Government Lectures]]: 2 points'''

*'''Adding a working link within any entry in [[:Category:United States Government]]: 1 point'''

*'''Adding two new terms to [[American Government Terms]]: 1 point'''

*'''An additional bonus of 1 point is awarded for adding a link to an entry on the [[Special:Deadendpages]], and thereby removing that entry from that list'''

[[category:Conservapedia]]
[[category:education]]

Speech or Debate Clause

2007-09-19T19:49:46Z

Ashleys:

In the [[United States Constitution]] Article one Section 6 Clause 1 the '''Speech and Debate Clause''' declares that members of both houses of [[congress]]:

''“...shall in all Cases, except [[Treason]], [[Felony]], and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their attendance at the Session of their Respective Houses, and in going to and from the same, and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.”''

The purpose of the '''Speech and Debate Clause''' is to protect members from being arrested by the [[President]] or other representatives of the [[Executive branch]] on a ploy to inhibit them from voting a specific way or taking actions with which he/she might hold an opposing view.

Speech or Debate Clause

2007-09-19T19:47:22Z

Ashleys: New page: In the United States Constitution Article one Section 6 Clause 1 the '''Speech and Debate clause''' declares that members of both houses of congress: ''“...shall in all Cases, e...

In the [[United States Constitution]] Article one Section 6 Clause 1 the '''Speech and Debate clause''' declares that members of both houses of [[congress]]:

''“...shall in all Cases, except [[Treason]], [[Felony]], and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their attendance at the Session of their Respective Houses, and in going to and from the same, and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.”''

The purpose of the '''Spech and Debate clause''' is to protect members from being arrested by the [[President]] or other representatives of the [[Executive branch]] on a ploy to inhibit them from voting a specific way or taking actions with which he/she might hold an opposing view.

Double Jeopardy

2007-09-17T22:52:30Z

Ashleys:

The double jeopardy law inhibits a defendant from being tried for the same crime twice. The fifth amendment of the US Constitution states:

'' “Nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.”''

The Double Jeopardy Clause protects against multiple punishments for the same offense.

Double Jeopardy

2007-09-17T22:48:34Z

Ashleys: New page: The double jeopardy law inhibits a defendant from being tried for the same crime twice. The fifth amendment of the us constitution states '' “Nor shall any person be subject ...

The double jeopardy law inhibits a defendant from being tried for the same crime twice. The fifth amendment of the us constitution states

'' “Nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.”''

The Double Jeopardy Clause protects against multiple punishments for the same offense.

Copyright Clause

2007-09-14T19:41:10Z

Ashleys: New page: The copyright clause found in Article One, Section Eight, of the US Constitution states: "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and ...

The copyright clause found in Article One, Section Eight, of the US Constitution states:

"To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."

This clause protects the original works of authors and inventors. This clause is the foundation for the US Copyright and Patent Law. The Copyright Act of 1790 was the first copyright law enacted in the United States and set the initial terms of copyright.

Hosni Mubarak

2007-01-19T22:06:45Z

Ashleys:

Hosni Mubarak is currently the fourth president of Egypt. He assumed office in October 1981.

Charles de Gaulle

2007-01-19T21:59:12Z

Ashleys:

Charles de Gaulle was the 18th president of the French republic. He was in office from 1959 until 1969. He was also the 149th Prime minister of France from 1958-1959. He was born on November 22, 1890 & died on November 9,1970 at age 79.

Charles de Gaulle

2007-01-19T21:58:36Z

Ashleys:

Bolshevik Revolution

2007-01-19T21:47:28Z

Ashleys:

The Bolshevik Revolution was the second phase of the Russian Revolution in 1997. It was the first Marxist communist revolution in history. The Bolshevik Revolution is also known as the October or November revolution.

Jerry Rawlings

2007-01-16T17:49:34Z

Ashleys:

Jerry Rawlings was both the 8th and 10th president of Ghana
. He was in office from June 1979 through September 1979 & from December 1981 until January 2001.

Violeta Chamorro

2007-01-16T17:32:41Z

Ashleys:

Violeta Chamorro was the 48th president of Nicaragua. She was in office from 1990 unitl 1997.

Patrice Lumumba

2007-01-16T17:06:37Z

Ashleys:

Patrice Lumumba was the prime minister of the Democratic Republic of Congo from June 1960 to September 1960. He was imprisoned and assassinated in 1961 during the Congo crisis.

Nelson Mandela

2007-01-16T17:01:01Z

Ashleys:

Nelson Mandela was the 11th president of South Africa. He was in office from 1994 to 1999. In 1962 he was arrested and spent 27 years in prison on conviction of sabotage with the African National Congress.

Milos Jakes

2007-01-16T16:49:44Z

Ashleys:

Milos Jakes was the General secretary of Czechoslovakia's communist party from 1987 until he resigned in 1989 during the "Velvet revolution."