Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Canberra

2010-08-27T07:37:02Z

Amccloud: /* Climate */

'''Canberra''' is the capital city of [[Australia]], situated within the [[Australian Capital Territory]], and has about 325,000 inhabitants.

Canberra is the seat of federal government, the Parliament House. It has headquarters of various government departments and the Australian Defence Force, and official residences of the Prime Minister and Governor-General.

[[Image:Canberra.jpg|thumb|Old and New Parliament Houses, Canberra.]]

== History ==
Construction of the capital began in 1913 after the territory was ceded in 1911 by [[New South Wales]] under provisions of the [[Constitution of Australia]].

Canberra is a planned city that was originally designed by [[Walter Burley Griffin]], a major 20th century [[America]]n architect. The city centre is laid out on two perpendicular axes: a water axis stretching along Lake Burley Griffin, and a ceremonial land axis stretching from Parliament House on Capital Hill north-eastward along [[ANZAC]] Avenue to the Australian War Memorial at the foot of Mount Ainslie. The area known as the Parliamentary Triangle is formed by three of Burley Griffin's axes, stretching from Capital Hill along Commonwealth Avenue to the Civic Centre around City Hill, along Constitution Avenue to the Defence precinct on Russell Hill, and along Kings Avenue back to Capital Hill.

The urban areas of Canberra are organised into a hierarchy of districts, town centres, group centres, local suburbs as well as other industrial areas and villages. There are seven districts, each of which is divided into smaller suburbs, and most of which have a town centre which is the focus of commercial and social activities. The districts were settled in the following chronological order:

* North Canberra, mostly settled in the 1920s and '30s, with expansion up to the 1960s, now 15 suburbs
* South Canberra, settled from the 1920s to '60s, 12 suburbs
* Woden Valley, first settled in 1963, 13 suburbs
* Belconnen, first settled in 1967, 25 suburbs
* Weston Creek, settled in 1969, 8 suburbs
* Tuggeranong, settled in 1974, 19 suburbs
* Gungahlin, settled in the early 1990s, 7 suburbs to date

The Mayfield House was a country house of Elizabethan style built in 1874 for Sir [[Edmund Barton]]. The southern draper whose store ultimately became part of [[Debenhams]] bought the house in 1887. Governor Joseph Femers built a small house for himself on the hill of The Crescent. In 1899 this was replaced by a larger residence which, substantially improved by Governor Lachlan Macquarie has survived to the present day, used as a retreat by Governors until the 1850s with the governor making it his principal residence for a temporary period in the 1920s.

== Geography ==

Canberra sits on an area of plains and low hills within a broad loop of the [[Murrumbidgee River]], a major tributary of the [[Murray River]] which is itself part of Australia's major inland Murray-[[Darling River|Darling]] river system. To the west and south is the [[Australian Alps]]; to the east is the [[Great Dividing Range]]; to the north is the Southern Highlands of the surrounding state, [[New South Wales]].

=== Climate ===
Because of its elevation (650 m) and distance from the coast, the Canberra experiences four distinct seasons, unlike the state capitals and coastal cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory's south-east are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and the long-term annual rainfall is 623 millimetres (24.5 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer, and lowest in winter. Drought is common. Tornados have also been frequently reported although have not caused damage.

Highest maximum temperature: 46.4 °C (115.5 °F) , Canberra, [[1 February]] [[1968]]

Lowest minimum temperature: -13.2 °C (8.2 °F), Canberra, [[11 July]] [[1971]]

== Governance ==
Aside from Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory has no settlements larger than a village. The Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly performs the roles of both a city council and territory (effectively state) government. The Assembly consists of 17 members, elected from three districts using proportional representation. The three districts are Molongolo, Gininderra and Brindabella, which elect seven, five and five members, respectively. The Chief Minister is elected by the Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) and selects another four MLAs to serve as Ministers to form, with the Chief Minister, an Executive (known informally as the cabinet.)

== Economy ==
The city's main industry is government administration and defence, which accounted for 26.1% of Gross Territory Product in 2003–04 and employed over 40% of Canberra's workforce. The major public-sector employers in Canberra include the parliament, government departments such as Department of Defence, Finance, Foreign Affairs and Trade, and Treasury.

A number of [[Australian Defence Force]] establishments are located in or near Canberra, most notably the Australian Defence Force headquarters and HMAS Harman, which is a naval communications centre that is being converted into a tri-service, multiuser depot. The former Royal Australian Air Force base 'Fairbairn', adjacent to the Canberra International Airport, was sold to the operators of the Airport; yet, the base continues to be used for RAAF VIP flights.

Property and business services, construction, health and community services, and education are other significant contributors to the economy of Canberra.

A large amount of Australian and international visitors make tourism a significant contributor to the economy. The most popular seasons are spring and autumn; the annual Floriade spring flower display in September is a major attraction.

== Education ==
Most suburbs are planned to include a primary school and a nearby preschool, and schools are usually located near open areas for play and sports. Preschool is not a compulsory year, but many children attend for the ACT Government-funded 12 hours a week. Primary school consists of seven grades: kindergarten and years 1 to 6. From years 7 to 10 children attend high school and in years 11 to 12 attend a secondary college. The ACT has the highest retention rate in Australia with 89% of students who were enrolled in year 7 in 1999 being enrolled full-time in year 12 in 2004. This retention rate has declined from a peak in 1994 when the rate was nearly 5% more.

In February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in Canberra; 96 were operated by the ACT Government and 44 are non-Government. During 2006 the ACT Government announced closures of up to 39 schools, to take effect from the end of the school year and after a series of consultations the Government announced its "Towards 2020: Renewing Our Schools" plan that closed some schools at the end of 2006 with more in 2007 and 2008, while consolidating school campuses and opening 'superschools' (large public schools for kindergarten through to year 12) through to 2020.

=== Tertiary sector ===
The two main tertiary institutions are the [[Australian National University]] (ANU) and the [[University of Canberra]] (UC). The ANU was established as a research university in 1946; it continues to have a strong research focus and is ranked among the best universities in the world in The Times Higher Education Supplement and the Shanghai Jiao Tong World University Rankings. Both ANU and UC also have campuses interstate and overseas. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the [[Australian Catholic University]]; St Mark's Theological College is a campus of [[Charles Sturt University]]. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus Canberra Institute of Technology.

The [[Australian Defence Force Academy]] (ADFA) and the [[Royal Military College, Duntroon]] are near the Defence headquarters in Canberra's inner north-east. ADFA teaches military undergraduates and postgraduates and is officially a campus of the [[University of New South Wales]]; Duntroon provides Australian Army Officer training.

== Arts and entertainment ==

Canberra is home to many national monuments and institutions such as the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Portrait Gallery currently housed at Old Parliament House, the National Library of Australia, the National Archives of Australia, and the National Museum of Australia established in 2001 that records Australia's social history and is one of Canberra's more architecturally daring buildings. Many Commonwealth government buildings in Canberra are open to the public, including Parliament House, the High Court and the Royal Australian Mint. Lake Burley Griffin is the site of the Captain Cook Memorial and the National [[Carillon]]. Other sites of interest include Telstra Tower and the Australian National Botanic Gardens, the National Zoo and Aquarium, and Questacon – the National Science and Technology Centre.

[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Australian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Australian History]]

Melbourne

2010-08-27T07:32:09Z

Amccloud: /* Facts about Melbourne */

''' Melbourne''' is [[Australia]]'s second largest city and the capital of the state of [[Victoria]]. Melbourne is the collective name for the City of Melbourne and greater suburban area and is home to 4 million people.
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|A Melbourne tram.]]
The City of Melbourne is located on the banks of the [[Yarra River]] and is renowned for its parks and gardens. The Victorian state parliament is located in the inner city. The Greater Melbourne area has an extensive system of street [[tram]]s and suburban [[railway]] lines.

The Greater Melbourne area surrounds Port Phillip Bay. Due to a rapid increase in population and a consequent increase in land and house values the metropolitan area now extends almost to the tip of the Mornington Peninsula and the City of [[Geelong]].

Melbourne is famous for being the home of the Australian Football League and for its large [[Greece|Greek]] community.

==History==
Between 1837 and 1840 (prior to the Federation), several treaties signed between the southern territory jurisdiction and the Indigenous people.

==Economy==
Industrial development and the rise of manufacturing caused the population to shift gradually from rural areas to cities during the early 1920s<ref>Goodman, R. (1999). "Industrialisation in Australia". Prenwell Press</ref>. In addition, farming remained prevalent. The economy was hard-hit by the [[Great Depression]], resulting in lower prices for farmers, layoffs among iron miners, and industrial unrest. Compounding the adversity, the Northern region were hit by a severe drought. The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] and other programs around the state established some jobs for Indians on their reservations, and the [[Indian Reorganization Act]] of 1934 provided the tribes with a mechanism of self-government. This measures assisted the Indigenous population, giving them a greater voice within the state, and promoted more respect for tribal customs because religious ceremonies and [[native language]]s were no longer suppressed.

== Transport ==
Melbourne has a reasonably extensive [[freeway]] network, as well as a large suburban railway system and one of the largest tram systems in the world.

Earlier freeways radiated out from the fringes of the inner city, but in more recent times a freeway has been built connecting three of these radial freeways through the inner city, and a ring road has been constructed around the outer suburbs to the west and north.
A freeway running north-south through the eastern suburbs is currently (2007) under construction.
The inner city connecting freeway and the north-south freeway under construction are both electronically [[toll]]ed.

The railway system is broad gauge (5' 3") and electrified at 1500 volts D.C. on overhead wires.
It is a radial system based on the inner city, with [[underground]] lines around the central business district allowing services from most lines to serve all the CBD's five [[station]]s.
Services operate seven days a week, from around 5 a.m. to midnight on most days, and generally with 15 or 20-minute frequencies in off-peak times, and more frequently in peak times.

Melbourne's tram system is standard gauge (4' 8½") and electrified at 600 volts D.C. on overhead wires.
Although it is mostly a radial system, there are several cross-suburban lines.

Melbourne's public transport (suburban railway, tram system, and buses) are privately operated under contract to the State Government and share a common time-based fare and ticketing system.

A feature of Melbourne's tram system is trams converted to operating restaurants that take diners on a tour of the city.

== Facts about Melbourne ==
* Melbourne was the temporary capital of Australia from Federation in 1901 to the transfer of the government to [[Canberra]] in 1927.<ref name="MelbOrg" /><ref>[http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/capital/v.htm Melbourne, Victoria] (Australian Government, Geoscience Australia)</ref>
* Melbourne's Greek community is reputed to be the second largest in the world.<ref name="MelbOrg">[http://www.melbourneaustralia.org/melbourne.html Melbourne, Victoria, Australia], Melbourne Travel Guide.</ref>
* Melbourne's Italian community is reputed to be the largest outside [[Italy]].<ref name="MelbOrg" />
* Melbourne's tram system is the largest in an English-speaking country, the largest in the southern hemisphere, and one of the largest in the world.
* Melbourne was the site of the 1956 [[Olympic Games]] and the 2006 [[Commonwealth Games]].
* Melbourne was portrayed in the 1959 [[Stanley Kramer]] movie ''On the Beach'' (starring [[Ava Gardner]]) as the last pocket of civilisation following a global nuclear war.<ref>[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0053137/ On the Beach] (Internet Movie Database)</ref>
* Melbourne is the most southerly city in the world with a population of over 1,000,000 people.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108743/Melbourne#361049.hook Melbourne] Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref>
*The Australian Open is held annually at Melbourne Park.
*It is also home to the Australian Formula One Grand Prix.

==See also==
*[[Melbourne Australia Temple]]

==For further reading==
* [http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/ City of Melbourne official site]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Australian Cities and Towns]]

Higgs boson

2010-08-27T07:26:54Z

Amccloud: Updated

A '''Higgs boson''' is an elementary particle whose existence is predicted by the [[Standard Model]] of particle physics. It serves a key role in explaining the origin of mass of other elementary particles of the Standard Model. It has not yet been observed in nature, but it is expected to be seen at the Large Hadron Collider that has been built in Europe. Physicist Leon Lederman coined and popularized the term "God Particle" to describe the Higgs boson. This was a reference to the way the particle has so far alluded experimental observation "that goddamn particle!"<ref> Lederman L., The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?, New York:Dell, 1993</ref>.

==External Links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20041118.shtml ''BBC Radio 4: In Our Time " Higgs Boson - the search for the God particle"'']

[[Category:Quantum Mechanics]]

Rugby (sport)

2010-08-15T04:07:50Z

Amccloud: /* Manner of play */

==Rugby Union==

'''Rugby Union''' (often simply '''Rugby''') refers to a team sport popular in the UK, France, Ireland, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Argentina, (Although not as popular as soccer) and throughout the south Pacific region. [[American Football]] is derived from it and shares a few similarities. [[Rugby League]] and [[Australian Rules Football]] are also related sports.

====Manner of play====

Two teams of fifteen players (8 forwards and 7 backs) carry, pass, (only backwards or laterally) and kick the ball down the field with the goal of touching the ball down over the opposition's try-line (the equivalent of the end zone in America football). Players may push or tackle an opposition player who is carrying the ball. Once a player carrying the ball is tackled, that player must release the ball and all players who are on their feet may attempt to collect it. The game is played with an oval shaped ball, similar to an American Football, but rounder and slightly larger. The pitch is 100metres (109.36 yards) by 50m (54.64 yards) with an in-goal of between 10 and 20m (Between 10.93 and 21.87 yards).

When minor infringements, such as dropping the ball and propelling it forward (a "knock on") or a forward pass occur, the game is restarted with a "scrum". A scrum consists of the 8 forwards from each team binding onto one another and pushing whilst another, the halfback, puts the ball in the middle and both teams attempt to kick the ball back to their side. When the ball goes out of play, or "into touch", the game is restarted with a lineout, or depending where it went out, a dropkick (Where the ball must be dropped onto the ground before it is kicked, all be it briefly)). A lineout consists of a number of players from each team forming two straight lines a metre apart and a player throwing the ball down the middle. When more serious infringements such as foul play and offsides occur, a penalty is awarded which allows the non-offending team to have a free kick of the ball or to have a shot at goal.

====Scoring====

When the ball is touched down by a ball carrier in his opponents in-goal a "try" is scored. Scoring a try awards 5 points and enables the team to attempt a "conversion." A conversion is taken by kicking the ball from a stationary position on the ground (usually with the help of a kicking tee or a small mound of dirt) over the "crossbar" of the H-shaped posts which awards the team an additional 2 points. A successful penalty kick is worth 3 points. A drop-goal (also worth 3 points) can be taken at any time during the game by dropping the ball on the ground and kicking it over the crossbar.
The term 'try' relates to the scoring team being entitled to have a 'try at goal'. In fact, under the original rules when the sport was in its infancy, no points were awarded for the try itself.

====History====

The game is said to have originated in the 1830s at Rugby School in England. Rugby quickly spread to all of the United Kingdom and France and by the 1880s to the colonies of New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. The game was popular in California around the turn of the century. The game split in 1895 over professionalism. The Rugby Union demanded (with varying degrees of effectiveness) complete amateurism for the game; the newly-formed Rugby League allowed players to be paid. Rugby Union remained amateur until 1995. Rugby featured at the Olympics until 1924, with the United States winning the last Olympic medal. In 1987 the first world cup was held with New Zealands' All Blacks winning at home. Since then the world cup has been won by Australia (twice) South Africa (twice) and England (once). A notable feature of the world game since the World Cup Era began, has been the dominance of the All Blacks between world cups but their inability to win the main prize.

==Rugby League==

'''Rugby League''' (commonly "league") is a sport that is popular in [[Australia]], [[England]] and [[New Zealand]]. It differs from rugby union in its rules, club structure and the typical socio-economic status of its adherents.

====Manner of play====

The game is played between 2 teams of 13 players, comprising of 6 forwards and 7 backs. The principle difference with union is when a player is tackled, the game immediately stops and the defending team must retreat 10 metres. The tackled player then rolls the ball back between his legs and the game continues. The attacking team has a maximum of 6 tackles before the ball must be handed over to the opposition. This rule avoids the need for the often time-consuming struggle for the ball after a tackle in rugby union. Lineouts are replaced by scrums and scrums are not competitive as they are in rugby union. Trys are valued at 4 points and conversions and penalties at two. A drop goal or "field goal" is worth one point

==References==

<References/>

==See also==
*[[History of rugby]]
*[[Touch football]]
*[[Rugby union]]
*[[Rugby league]]

[[Category:Rugby]]

Rugby (sport)

2010-08-15T03:47:26Z

Amccloud: Love Rubgy

==Rugby Union==

'''Rugby Union''' (often simply '''Rugby''') refers to a team sport popular in the UK, France, Ireland, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Argentina, (Although not as popular as soccer) and throughout the south Pacific region. [[American Football]] is derived from it and shares a few similarities. [[Rugby League]] and [[Australian Rules Football]] are also related sports.

====Manner of play====

Two teams of fifteen players (8 forwards and 7 backs) carry, pass, (only backwards or laterally) and kick the ball down the field with the goal of touching the ball down over the opposition's try-line (the equivalent of the end zone in America football). Players may push or tackle an opposition player who is carrying the ball. Once a player carrying the ball is tackled, that player must release the ball and all players who are on their feet may attempt to collect it. The game is played with an oval shaped ball, similar to an American Football, but rounder and slightly larger. The pitch is 100metres (109.36 yards) by 50m (54.64 yards) with an in-goal of between 10 and 20m (Between 10.93 and 21.87 yards).

When minor infringements, such as dropping the ball and propelling it forward (a "knock on") or a forward pass occur, the game is restarted with a "scrum". A scrum consists of the 8 forwards from each team binding onto one another and pushing whilst another, the halfback, puts the ball in the middle and both teams attempt to kick the ball back to their side. When the ball goes out of play, or "into touch", the game is restarted with a lineout, or depending where it went out, a dropkick (Where the ball must be dropped onto the ground before it is kicked,all be it briefly)). A lineout consists of a number of players from each team forming two straight lines a metre apart and a player throwing the ball down the middle. When more serious infringements such as foul play and offsides occur, a penalty is awarded which allows the non-offending team to have a free kick of the ball or to have a shot at goal.

====Scoring====

When the ball is touched down by a ball carrier in his opponents in-goal a "try" is scored. Scoring a try awards 5 points and enables the team to attempt a "conversion." A conversion is taken by kicking the ball from a stationary position on the ground (usually with the help of a kicking tee or a small mound of dirt) over the "crossbar" of the H-shaped posts which awards the team an additional 2 points. A successful penalty kick is worth 3 points. A drop-goal (also worth 3 points) can be taken at any time during the game by dropping the ball on the ground and kicking it over the crossbar.
The term 'try' relates to the scoring team being entitled to have a 'try at goal'. In fact, under the original rules when the sport was in its infancy, no points were awarded for the try itself.

====History====

The game is said to have originated in the 1830s at Rugby School in England. Rugby quickly spread to all of the United Kingdom and France and by the 1880s to the colonies of New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. The game was popular in California around the turn of the century. The game split in 1895 over professionalism. The Rugby Union demanded (with varying degrees of effectiveness) complete amateurism for the game; the newly-formed Rugby League allowed players to be paid. Rugby Union remained amateur until 1995. Rugby featured at the Olympics until 1924, with the United States winning the last Olympic medal. In 1987 the first world cup was held with New Zealands' All Blacks winning at home. Since then the world cup has been won by Australia (twice) South Africa (twice) and England (once). A notable feature of the world game since the World Cup Era began, has been the dominance of the All Blacks between world cups but their inability to win the main prize.

==Rugby League==

'''Rugby League''' (commonly "league") is a sport that is popular in [[Australia]], [[England]] and [[New Zealand]]. It differs from rugby union in its rules, club structure and the typical socio-economic status of its adherents.

====Manner of play====

The game is played between 2 teams of 13 players, comprising of 6 forwards and 7 backs. The principle difference with union is when a player is tackled, the game immediately stops and the defending team must retreat 10 metres. The tackled player then rolls the ball back between his legs and the game continues. The attacking team has a maximum of 6 tackles before the ball must be handed over to the opposition. This rule avoids the need for the often time-consuming struggle for the ball after a tackle in rugby union. Lineouts are replaced by scrums and scrums are not competitive as they are in rugby union. Trys are valued at 4 points and conversions and penalties at two. A drop goal or "field goal" is worth one point

==References==

<References/>

==See also==
*[[History of rugby]]
*[[Touch football]]
*[[Rugby union]]
*[[Rugby league]]

[[Category:Rugby]]

United Nations

2010-08-15T03:30:25Z

Amccloud: Inserting fact.

[[Image:UN1.jpg|thumb|right|Seal of the United Nations]]
The '''United Nations''' is a [[globalism|globalist]] organization of countries all over the world. Originally created to facilitate cooperation in [[international law]], international security, economic development, and [[human rights]]. It was founded in 1945 at the signing of the United Nations Charter by 51 countries. In doing so it replaced the League of Nations which was founded in 1919 after the first world war. The UN currently has 192 members which is almost all the countries in the world. Non-members include [[Taiwan]] and [[Vatican City]]. Switzerland finally joined in 2002.<ref> [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/GA10041.doc.htm]</ref> The United Nations typically supports [[liberal]], [[socialist]] ideas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kincaid|first=Cliff|url=http://www.aim.org/aim-report/the-plan-for-socialist-world-government|title=The Plan For Socialist World Government|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=Accuracy in Media}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations|title=United Nations|accessdate=2010-02-06|work=Wikipedia|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middletownca.com/LIBERAL-EQUALS-SOCIALIST.htm|title=Liberal equals socialist equals communitarian equals fabian society equals Agenda 21|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=middletownca.com}}</ref>

==History==
The term "United Nations" was widely used during [[World War II]] to denote the allied powers making war against Germany and Japan, but the actual UN was created in 1945. It was designed by the U.S. State Department. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] envisaged "four policemen", Britain, United States, Soviet Union, and [[Republic of China]] to be the major forces on what later became the UN Security Council to enforce the peace worldwide. This was deemed a modern approach to replace the old [[spheres of influence]] as they were called during the age of Imperialism.

US Secretary of State Cordell Hull said a the time while selling the idea to Congress, "there will no longer be need for spheres of influence, for alliances, for balance of power, or any other of the separate alliances through which in the unhappy past the nations strove to safeguard their security or promote their interest."

American enthusiasm for the UN soured after the [[Soviet Union]] vetoed most resolutions of the Security Council. However the Soviets boycotted the UN in 1950, allowing the UN to officially sponsor the [[Korean War]]. In practice, the U.S. made all the decisions for the UN regarding that war. When the Soviets returned in 1951, soo too did stalemate, and the UN played a minor role in the [[Cold War]].

The western military alliance of [[NATO]] began in 1949 and played a much greater role in US foreign policy commitments and decisions during the [[Cold War]] than the UN ever did. The one exception was the [[Korean War]], which was fought under UN auspisces since theSoviet Union was boycotting the UN in 1950.
===Third World issues===
In its earliest years, the United Nations was not dominated by the Asian and African "Third World" nations which ultimately poisoned the organization, but was of only limited use in controlling international conflict.

By the 1960s, the General Assembly, although powerless, became a shrill sounding board for anti-American sentiment. Unfortunatly this continues despite the fact the United Nations would cease to function without United States funding.

===China===

==Organization==
[[Image:Int Atomic Ag.jpg|thumb|Flag of the International Atomic Energy Agency]]
The main deliberative organ is the '''General Assembly''' which usually meets annually in September with representation by all member states. The General Assembly votes on the annual budget of the United Nations, elects members to other UN organs and committees, and makes non-binding recommendations to member states through resolutions.

The '''[[Security Council]]''' handles matters relating to international peace and stability. It consists of five permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia and PR China), and ten temporary members, which are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The Security Council decides by vote. On substantive issues, nine members must support the proposal, including all five permanent members, giving each permanent member an effective veto power. The chair of the Security Council rotates each month among its members, in alphabetic order.
===International Court of Justice===
The '''International Court of Justice''', based in [[The Hague]], was founded to settle conflicts and disputes over questions arising from the [[international law|interpretation of treaties]] among member states. It only may entertain <ref> International Court of Justice, [http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=6 How the Court works], retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref> cases where all parties to the case in question have agreed to recognize the jurisdiction of the Court. The Court also advices other organs and agencies of the United Nations on questions of the interpretation of treaties.
===Other Sections===
The '''United Nations Economic and Social Council''' is a deliberative and advisory organ dedicated to promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. It cooperates with the [[International Monetary Fund]], the World Bank Group and similar international agencies.

The '''United Nations Secretariat''' is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the UN system. The head of the Secretariat is the [[Secretary-General]], who is nominated by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly for renewable five-year terms. The current Secretary-General is [[Ban Ki-moon]], the former Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea. It is customary to let the position rotate among the different world regions.

==Criticism==
The U.N. has at various times in its history been accused of inefficiency and waste, which some critics have attributed to its cumbersome and excessive bureaucracy. Probably the most controversial issue with the United Nations is the Oil-for-Food scandal.

As a meeting place for many different nations, the UN can only act as a mechanism for international consensus. The UN has been unable to act in a clear and decisive way when confronted crises in which this consensus is not present. Recent examples include the [[Iran]]ian nuclear program and the genocides in Darfur, Sudan and Rwanda. Because each of the five permanent members of the Security Council have a veto, and because they often disagree, many times no action can be agreed upon. Typically but not always this division includes the [[United States]] on one side with either [[China]], [[Russia]] or both on the other. Other times the Security Council has been able to agree but lacks the will or means to enforce its resolutions. A recent example is the 2006 Israel-Lebanon Crisis, where no action has been taken to enforce the provisions of Resolution 1559 and Resolution 1701 to disarm terrorist organizations such as Hezbollah. There usually are no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution.

Inclusion on the old United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) of nations such as Sudan and Libya, whose leaderships have dubious records on human rights, and Libya's chairmanship of this Commission, has been a highly controversial issue.
[[Image:un_building.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The UN headquarters, on the east side of Manhattan, opened its doors on January 10th, 1951.]]

The U.N. has been accused of hypocritical conduct and double standards. The U.N. condemns Israel for its conduct toward the Palestinians, yes it refuses to condemn China for its conduct toward the Tibetans. <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C0058CAB-F932-4EB8-B2C1-2C8CABB01F53 The U.N.'s Hypocrisy in Tibet], [[Joseph Klein]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', March 28, 2008</ref>

The United Nations has on many occasions ignored the plight of people across the world, especially in parts of Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Current examples include the UN's inaction toward the Sudanese government in Darfur, the Chinese government's ethnic cleansing in Tibet, and the Israel-Arab conflict. <ref> IBD Editorial, [http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=291423057524689 U.N. Fiddles As China Torches Tibet], retrieved 30 March 2008.</ref>

During the Rwandan genocide the UN did not authorize UNAMIR to intervene or use force to prevent or halt the killing.

===Promoting Abortion===
The Committee for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) pushes countries to promote [[abortion]].
<ref>[http://www.lifenews.com/int620.html United Nations Committee Pushes Countries to Promote Abortion in CEDAW Mtg], [[Samantha Singson]], ''[[Life News]]'', February 15, 2008</ref>

===Arab-Israel dispute===
[[File:Bnai-brith.jpg|thumb|300px|''B'nai B'rith'' magazine gives a Jewish view of the UN, [http://mydigimag.rrd.com/publication/?i=25994 winter 2009 online]]] A General Assembly resolution led to the partition of Palestine in 1947, but the UN was useless in preventing armed Arab aggression against the new State of Israel in 1948. Increasingly the General Assembly became a foum for Arab attacks on [[Israel]]

The UN has taken a one-sided approach to issues relating to the [[Israel]]-Arab conflict. Israel has consistently been singled out by the UN for uniquely critical treatment. In 1975 the General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that "Zionism is racism" <ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/a06f2943c226015c85256c40005d359c/761c1063530766a7052566a2005b74d1!OpenDocument 16/12/1991, A/RES/46/86, Elimination of racism and racial discrimination/Zionism]</ref>, and UN-sponsored meetings supposedly opposing [[racism]] have criticized Israel (which grants equal political and religious rights to Arabs) while suppressing all criticism of those Arab countries (where non-Muslims are second-class citizens and [[anti-Semitism]] enjoys state support).

Unlike other refugee groups, the Palestinian Arabs have their own agency within the United Nations, and are beneficiaries of special events such as an "International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People."<ref>[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/palestinian/ UN Web Site for International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, retried June 29, 2007]</ref> Israel was excluded from membership in any of the UN's regional groups until 2000. In effect, this meant Israel was forbidden from serving on UN bodies such as the Security Council. Israel's recent permission to participate more fully within the UN as a member of the Western European and Others regional group is temporary and subject to renewal. Israel is allowed to participate only in the New York operations of the UN and is excluded from the UN offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Rome and Vienna which handle such issues as human rights and arms control. Censure of Israel has apparently been instituted as a routine agenda item for various UN bodies such as the Human Rights Council. The 1975 Resolution 3379 qualified Zionism as a form of racism (later revoked with Resolution 4686).

===Defending Islam===
The United Nations Secretary General [[Ban Ki-moon]] condemned [[Geert Wilders]]'s controversial film "[[Fitna]]", while stating "freedom of expression is not at stake here." <ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN2844232220080328?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews&rpc=22&sp=true U.N.'s Ban condemns Dutch film as anti-Islamic], ''[[Reuters]]'', March 28, 2008.</ref>

The U.N.'s Human Rights Council passed a resolution that directs the body’s expert on free speech to report on “individuals and news media for negative comments on Islam.” <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=F00A83C1-8D4A-4A7B-9545-9A63091D8294 The United Nations: Islam’s Gestapo], [[Stephen Brown]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', April 11, 2008</ref> This suppression of free speech at an organization purporting to fairly represent the world's nations in a common forum is one of numerous actions in the past decade that has undermined U.N. credibility.

===Contemporary US Criticism===
Some American critics view the UN as an agent for eroding the [[Sovereignty]] of the [[United States]] and instead promoting forms of [[One-world government|world government]]. Some claim that President [[Bill Clinton]] rejected and ignored the position of the United Nations when he ordered U.S. military "police actions" in foreign countries. President [[George W. Bush]] also rejected the inaction of the UN when he authorized military action against the regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] for ignoring various UN resolutions. Some commentators now feel that it has since devolved into a radical debating society which has ironically blocked most of the goals for which it has been formed. <ref>[http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030501faessay11217/michael-j-glennon/why-the-security-council-failed.html Why the Security Council Failed], Michael J. Glennon, ''Foreign Affairs'', May/June 2003.</ref>

==UN Peacekeepers Child Sexual Abuse==
The United Nations since its founding has been enmeshed in various scandals.

In July 1997 the UN announced an investigation into [[United Nations Peacekeeping Force]]s in [[Cote d'Ivoire]] on charges of widespread sexual abuse with a large number of underage girls. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/07/21/un.ivory.coast.reut/ U.N. suspends peacekeepers amid sex abuse charges], CNN, July 21, 2007.</ref> More than 300 members of UN peacekeeping missions around the world have been investigated for sexual exploitation and abuse since 2004, including some stationed in [[Congo]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Haiti]]. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6909664.stm UN probes 'abuse' in Ivory Coast], BBC, July 23, 2007.</ref>

=== Incidents ===
*1998 - Bosnia <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=YVWZRGS4V2AGJQFIQMGSFGGAVCBQWIV0?xml=/news/2002/04/25/wbos25.xml Teenagers 'used for sex by UN in Bosnia'], By Stewart Payne, London Telegraph, 25/04/2002.</ref>
*2003 - Nepalese troops accused of sexual abuse while serving in DR Congo. Six are later jailed
*2004 - Two UN peacekeepers repatriated after being accused of abuse in Burundi
*2005 - UN troops accused of rape and sexual abuse in Sudan <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/01/03/wsudan03.xml UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan], By Kate Holt in Juba and Sarah Hughes, London Telegraph, 04/01/2007.</ref>
*2006 - UN personnel accused of rape and exploitation on missions is Haiti and Liberia
*2007 - UN launches probe into sexual abuse claims in Ivory Coast

==Notable roles of U.S. Ambassadors to the U.N.==
* 1981-1985, Jeane Kirkpatrick - Denunciated the Soviet Union for the Sept. 1, 1983 shootdown of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] in international airspace just west of [[Sakhalin]] Island.

==Further reading==
* Pubantz, Jerry, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the United Nations'' (2nd ed. 2008), useful basic guide to all activities
* Weiss, Thomas G., and Sam Daws, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations'' (2009), 848pp; articles by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-United-Nations-Handbooks/dp/0199560102/ref=pd_sim_b_1 excerpt and text search]
* Weiss, Thomas G. ''The United Nations and Changing World Politics'' (6th ed. 2009), 504pp; solid college textbook [http://www.amazon.com/United-Nations-Changing-World-Politics/dp/0813344352/ref=pd_sim_b_3cerpt and text search]
==External links==

*[http://www.nysun.com/article/56061 UNDP Officials Said To Hamper Probe Into Counterfeit Cash], By Benny Avni, ''The New York Sun'', June 7, 2007.
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HR00972:@@@D&summ2=m& H.R. 972 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005] - Title I: Combatting International Trafficking in Persons - (Sec. 101); Directs the U.S. Secretary of State, prior to voting for a peacekeeping mission, to notify the appropriate Congressional committees respecting measures taken to prevent Peacekeeping personnel from involvement in human trafficking or sexual exploitation.

==See Also==
*[[Previous Breaking News/United Nations|Articles about the '''United Nations''' from previous "In the news" ]]

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/ United Nations] - Official site
*[http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c=fvKRI8MPJpF&b=1813833 All about the United Nations Budget] June 2006
*[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2007/May/theuae_May569.xml&section=theuae&col UN General Assembly President Shaikha Haya Rashed Al Khalifa calls for Islamic texts re-interpretation,]Khaleej Times Online, 19 May 2007.
*[http://www.rescue007.org/ International Committee for the Rescue of KAL 007 Survivors]

===Sites critical of the U.N.===
*[http://www.unwatch.org UN Watch]
*[http://www.unisevil.com/temp213.htm UN is Evil]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/united-nations/ What Liberals Say - Category: United Nations], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[category:United Nations]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[category:Cold War]]
[[category:Human Rights]]

==See Also==
*[[Jeane Kirkpatrick]]

==References==
<references/>

United Nations

2010-08-15T03:19:38Z

Amccloud: Slight clean up.

[[Image:UN1.jpg|thumb|right|Seal of the United Nations]]
The '''United Nations''' is a [[globalism|globalist]] organization of countries all over the world. Originally created to facilitate cooperation in [[international law]], international security, economic development, and [[human rights]]. It was founded in 1945 at the signing of the United Nations Charter by 51 countries. In doing so it replaced the League of Nations which was founded in 1919 after the first world war. The UN currently has 192 members which is almost all the countries in the world. Non-members include [[Taiwan]] and [[Vatican City]]. Switzerland finally joined in 2002.<ref> [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/GA10041.doc.htm]</ref> The United Nations typically supports [[liberal]], [[socialist]] ideas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kincaid|first=Cliff|url=http://www.aim.org/aim-report/the-plan-for-socialist-world-government|title=The Plan For Socialist World Government|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=Accuracy in Media}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations|title=United Nations|accessdate=2010-02-06|work=Wikipedia|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middletownca.com/LIBERAL-EQUALS-SOCIALIST.htm|title=Liberal equals socialist equals communitarian equals fabian society equals Agenda 21|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=middletownca.com}}</ref>

==History==
The term "United Nations" was widely used during [[World War II]] to denote the allied powers making war against Germany and Japan, but the actual UN was created in 1945. It was designed by the U.S. State Department. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] envisaged "four policemen", Britain, United States, Soviet Union, and [[Republic of China]] to be the major forces on what later became the UN Security Council to enforce the peace worldwide. This was deemed a modern approach to replace the old [[spheres of influence]] as they were called during the age of Imperialism.

US Secretary of State Cordell Hull said a the time while selling the idea to Congress, "there will no longer be need for spheres of influence, for alliances, for balance of power, or any other of the separate alliances through which in the unhappy past the nations strove to safeguard their security or promote their interest."

American enthusiasm for the UN soured after the [[Soviet Union]] vetoed most resolutions of the Security Council. However the Soviets boycotted the UN in 1950, allowing the UN to officially sponsor the [[Korean War]]. In practice, the U.S. made all the decisions for the UN regarding that war. When the Soviets returned in 1951, soo too did stalemate, and the UN played a minor role in the [[Cold War]].

The western military alliance of [[NATO]] began in 1949 and played a much greater role in US foreign policy commitments and decisions during the [[Cold War]] than the UN ever did. The one exception was the [[Korean War]], which was fought under UN auspisces since theSoviet Union was boycotting the UN in 1950.
===Third World issues===
In its earliest years, the United Nations was not dominated by the Asian and African "Third World" nations which ultimately poisoned the organization, but was of only limited use in controlling international conflict.

By the 1960s, the General Assembly, although powerless, became a shrill sounding board for anti-American sentiment.

===China===

==Organization==
[[Image:Int Atomic Ag.jpg|thumb|Flag of the International Atomic Energy Agency]]
The main deliberative organ is the '''General Assembly''' which usually meets annually in September with representation by all member states. The General Assembly votes on the annual budget of the United Nations, elects members to other UN organs and committees, and makes non-binding recommendations to member states through resolutions.

The '''[[Security Council]]''' handles matters relating to international peace and stability. It consists of five permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia and PR China), and ten temporary members, which are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The Security Council decides by vote. On substantive issues, nine members must support the proposal, including all five permanent members, giving each permanent member an effective veto power. The chair of the Security Council rotates each month among its members, in alphabetic order.
===International Court of Justice===
The '''International Court of Justice''', based in [[The Hague]], was founded to settle conflicts and disputes over questions arising from the [[international law|interpretation of treaties]] among member states. It only may entertain <ref> International Court of Justice, [http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=6 How the Court works], retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref> cases where all parties to the case in question have agreed to recognize the jurisdiction of the Court. The Court also advices other organs and agencies of the United Nations on questions of the interpretation of treaties.
===Other Sections===
The '''United Nations Economic and Social Council''' is a deliberative and advisory organ dedicated to promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. It cooperates with the [[International Monetary Fund]], the World Bank Group and similar international agencies.

The '''United Nations Secretariat''' is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the UN system. The head of the Secretariat is the [[Secretary-General]], who is nominated by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly for renewable five-year terms. The current Secretary-General is [[Ban Ki-moon]], the former Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea. It is customary to let the position rotate among the different world regions.

==Criticism==
The U.N. has at various times in its history been accused of inefficiency and waste, which some critics have attributed to its cumbersome and excessive bureaucracy. Probably the most controversial issue with the United Nations is the Oil-for-Food scandal.

As a meeting place for many different nations, the UN can only act as a mechanism for international consensus. The UN has been unable to act in a clear and decisive way when confronted crises in which this consensus is not present. Recent examples include the [[Iran]]ian nuclear program and the genocides in Darfur, Sudan and Rwanda. Because each of the five permanent members of the Security Council have a veto, and because they often disagree, many times no action can be agreed upon. Typically but not always this division includes the [[United States]] on one side with either [[China]], [[Russia]] or both on the other. Other times the Security Council has been able to agree but lacks the will or means to enforce its resolutions. A recent example is the 2006 Israel-Lebanon Crisis, where no action has been taken to enforce the provisions of Resolution 1559 and Resolution 1701 to disarm terrorist organizations such as Hezbollah. There usually are no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution.

Inclusion on the old United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) of nations such as Sudan and Libya, whose leaderships have dubious records on human rights, and Libya's chairmanship of this Commission, has been a highly controversial issue.
[[Image:un_building.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The UN headquarters, on the east side of Manhattan, opened its doors on January 10th, 1951.]]

The U.N. has been accused of hypocritical conduct and double standards. The U.N. condemns Israel for its conduct toward the Palestinians, yes it refuses to condemn China for its conduct toward the Tibetans. <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C0058CAB-F932-4EB8-B2C1-2C8CABB01F53 The U.N.'s Hypocrisy in Tibet], [[Joseph Klein]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', March 28, 2008</ref>

The United Nations has on many occasions ignored the plight of people across the world, especially in parts of Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Current examples include the UN's inaction toward the Sudanese government in Darfur, the Chinese government's ethnic cleansing in Tibet, and the Israel-Arab conflict. <ref> IBD Editorial, [http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=291423057524689 U.N. Fiddles As China Torches Tibet], retrieved 30 March 2008.</ref>

During the Rwandan genocide the UN did not authorize UNAMIR to intervene or use force to prevent or halt the killing.

===Promoting Abortion===
The Committee for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) pushes countries to promote [[abortion]].
<ref>[http://www.lifenews.com/int620.html United Nations Committee Pushes Countries to Promote Abortion in CEDAW Mtg], [[Samantha Singson]], ''[[Life News]]'', February 15, 2008</ref>

===Arab-Israel dispute===
[[File:Bnai-brith.jpg|thumb|300px|''B'nai B'rith'' magazine gives a Jewish view of the UN, [http://mydigimag.rrd.com/publication/?i=25994 winter 2009 online]]] A General Assembly resolution led to the partition of Palestine in 1947, but the UN was useless in preventing armed Arab aggression against the new State of Israel in 1948. Increasingly the General Assembly became a foum for Arab attacks on [[Israel]]

The UN has taken a one-sided approach to issues relating to the [[Israel]]-Arab conflict. Israel has consistently been singled out by the UN for uniquely critical treatment. In 1975 the General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that "Zionism is racism" <ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/a06f2943c226015c85256c40005d359c/761c1063530766a7052566a2005b74d1!OpenDocument 16/12/1991, A/RES/46/86, Elimination of racism and racial discrimination/Zionism]</ref>, and UN-sponsored meetings supposedly opposing [[racism]] have criticized Israel (which grants equal political and religious rights to Arabs) while suppressing all criticism of those Arab countries (where non-Muslims are second-class citizens and [[anti-Semitism]] enjoys state support).

Unlike other refugee groups, the Palestinian Arabs have their own agency within the United Nations, and are beneficiaries of special events such as an "International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People."<ref>[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/palestinian/ UN Web Site for International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, retried June 29, 2007]</ref> Israel was excluded from membership in any of the UN's regional groups until 2000. In effect, this meant Israel was forbidden from serving on UN bodies such as the Security Council. Israel's recent permission to participate more fully within the UN as a member of the Western European and Others regional group is temporary and subject to renewal. Israel is allowed to participate only in the New York operations of the UN and is excluded from the UN offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Rome and Vienna which handle such issues as human rights and arms control. Censure of Israel has apparently been instituted as a routine agenda item for various UN bodies such as the Human Rights Council. The 1975 Resolution 3379 qualified Zionism as a form of racism (later revoked with Resolution 4686).

===Defending Islam===
The United Nations Secretary General [[Ban Ki-moon]] condemned [[Geert Wilders]]'s controversial film "[[Fitna]]", while stating "freedom of expression is not at stake here." <ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN2844232220080328?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews&rpc=22&sp=true U.N.'s Ban condemns Dutch film as anti-Islamic], ''[[Reuters]]'', March 28, 2008.</ref>

The U.N.'s Human Rights Council passed a resolution that directs the body’s expert on free speech to report on “individuals and news media for negative comments on Islam.” <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=F00A83C1-8D4A-4A7B-9545-9A63091D8294 The United Nations: Islam’s Gestapo], [[Stephen Brown]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', April 11, 2008</ref> This suppression of free speech at an organization purporting to fairly represent the world's nations in a common forum is one of numerous actions in the past decade that has undermined U.N. credibility.

===Contemporary US Criticism===
Some American critics view the UN as an agent for eroding the [[Sovereignty]] of the [[United States]] and instead promoting forms of [[One-world government|world government]]. Some claim that President [[Bill Clinton]] rejected and ignored the position of the United Nations when he ordered U.S. military "police actions" in foreign countries. President [[George W. Bush]] also rejected the inaction of the UN when he authorized military action against the regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] for ignoring various UN resolutions. Some commentators now feel that it has since devolved into a radical debating society which has ironically blocked most of the goals for which it has been formed. <ref>[http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030501faessay11217/michael-j-glennon/why-the-security-council-failed.html Why the Security Council Failed], Michael J. Glennon, ''Foreign Affairs'', May/June 2003.</ref>

==UN Peacekeepers Child Sexual Abuse==
The United Nations since its founding has been enmeshed in various scandals.

In July 1997 the UN announced an investigation into [[United Nations Peacekeeping Force]]s in [[Cote d'Ivoire]] on charges of widespread sexual abuse with a large number of underage girls. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/07/21/un.ivory.coast.reut/ U.N. suspends peacekeepers amid sex abuse charges], CNN, July 21, 2007.</ref> More than 300 members of UN peacekeeping missions around the world have been investigated for sexual exploitation and abuse since 2004, including some stationed in [[Congo]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Haiti]]. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6909664.stm UN probes 'abuse' in Ivory Coast], BBC, July 23, 2007.</ref>

=== Incidents ===
*1998 - Bosnia <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=YVWZRGS4V2AGJQFIQMGSFGGAVCBQWIV0?xml=/news/2002/04/25/wbos25.xml Teenagers 'used for sex by UN in Bosnia'], By Stewart Payne, London Telegraph, 25/04/2002.</ref>
*2003 - Nepalese troops accused of sexual abuse while serving in DR Congo. Six are later jailed
*2004 - Two UN peacekeepers repatriated after being accused of abuse in Burundi
*2005 - UN troops accused of rape and sexual abuse in Sudan <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/01/03/wsudan03.xml UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan], By Kate Holt in Juba and Sarah Hughes, London Telegraph, 04/01/2007.</ref>
*2006 - UN personnel accused of rape and exploitation on missions is Haiti and Liberia
*2007 - UN launches probe into sexual abuse claims in Ivory Coast

==Notable roles of U.S. Ambassadors to the U.N.==
* 1981-1985, Jeane Kirkpatrick - Denunciated the Soviet Union for the Sept. 1, 1983 shootdown of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] in international airspace just west of [[Sakhalin]] Island.

==Further reading==
* Pubantz, Jerry, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the United Nations'' (2nd ed. 2008), useful basic guide to all activities
* Weiss, Thomas G., and Sam Daws, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations'' (2009), 848pp; articles by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-United-Nations-Handbooks/dp/0199560102/ref=pd_sim_b_1 excerpt and text search]
* Weiss, Thomas G. ''The United Nations and Changing World Politics'' (6th ed. 2009), 504pp; solid college textbook [http://www.amazon.com/United-Nations-Changing-World-Politics/dp/0813344352/ref=pd_sim_b_3cerpt and text search]
==External links==

*[http://www.nysun.com/article/56061 UNDP Officials Said To Hamper Probe Into Counterfeit Cash], By Benny Avni, ''The New York Sun'', June 7, 2007.
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HR00972:@@@D&summ2=m& H.R. 972 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005] - Title I: Combatting International Trafficking in Persons - (Sec. 101); Directs the U.S. Secretary of State, prior to voting for a peacekeeping mission, to notify the appropriate Congressional committees respecting measures taken to prevent Peacekeeping personnel from involvement in human trafficking or sexual exploitation.

==See Also==
*[[Previous Breaking News/United Nations|Articles about the '''United Nations''' from previous "In the news" ]]

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/ United Nations] - Official site
*[http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c=fvKRI8MPJpF&b=1813833 All about the United Nations Budget] June 2006
*[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2007/May/theuae_May569.xml&section=theuae&col UN General Assembly President Shaikha Haya Rashed Al Khalifa calls for Islamic texts re-interpretation,]Khaleej Times Online, 19 May 2007.
*[http://www.rescue007.org/ International Committee for the Rescue of KAL 007 Survivors]

===Sites critical of the U.N.===
*[http://www.unwatch.org UN Watch]
*[http://www.unisevil.com/temp213.htm UN is Evil]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/united-nations/ What Liberals Say - Category: United Nations], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[category:United Nations]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[category:Cold War]]
[[category:Human Rights]]

==See Also==
*[[Jeane Kirkpatrick]]

==References==
<references/>

Celesta

2010-08-14T05:24:12Z

Amccloud:

[[Image:Celesta.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A celesta]]
A '''celesta''' or '''celeste''' ([[France|French]]: ''heavenly'') is a percussion instrument with a piano-like keyboard, connected to hammers which strike a graduated set of steel plates suspended over wooden resonators. When struck, the plates give a very pure bell-like sound. Similar to that of the [[glockenspiel]] but with a softer tone quality. A foot pedal is used to sustain or dampen the sound.

Invented in [[Paris]] in 1889 by Auguste Mustel, the first known use of the instrument in a symphonic work with a full orchestra is [[Pyotr Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky's]] ''The Voyevoda'' (1891);The following year he used it again for his ballet ''The Nutcracker'' (1892), notably in the "Dance of the Sugarplum Fairy", perhaps the most widely recognized use of the instrument, although [[Bela Bartok]]'s ''Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta'' is the most notable extended work.

Like other [[metallophone]]s, it is a part of the percussion section, but is usually played by a pianist rather than percussionist.

[[Category:Percussion Instruments]]
[[Category:Keyboard Instruments]]

Thessaly

2010-08-14T05:18:24Z

Amccloud: Years of "Classical Studies" finally has a use.

'''Thessaly''' is a region in central to northern [[Greece]]. In the story by Homer, The Odyssey, Thessaly was known as Aeolus.

[[category:Greece]]

Plumbing

2010-08-14T05:13:16Z

Amccloud:

'''Plumbing''' describes the systems of pipes, fixtures, and appliances we use to move potable (drinking) [[water]] into and through our [[home]]s and [[building]]s, heat it, use it, and safely dispose of the wastewater. The tradesman who is a trained expert in doing this work in accordance with [[building code]]s is called a plumber. Plumbing is one of the [[building trades]].

The word comes from ''plumbum'', the [[Latin]] word for [[lead]], from which water pipes were originally made. Lead ceased to be used for pipework in the 1960s because of its toxicity, but may still be found in older properties.

Water usually enters the system either from a public water main via a meter, or from a private well and pressure tank. It is then conveyed under pressure to the various fixtures that need it. One main appliance is the hot water heater, after which a series of pipes usually runs in parallel with the cold water pipes.

At the fixtures we are able to use the hot and cold water, for washing, bathing, irrigation, and sanitation. Each of these fixtures, with the exception of [[irrigation]], also feature a connection to the drain, waste, and vent piping system (DWV). The DWV plumbing safely directs the soiled water to a public sewer line or a private [[septic system]], while providing safe ventilation for sewer gases and to prevent siphoning of the traps, which are water filled joints that prevent sewer gases from entering the building. The water used in irrigation simply returns to the environment directly.

If a building uses a hot water or steam [[heating system]], while it is connected to the fresh water supply, it is basically a closed system. It is also installed and maintained by plumbers.

[[Category:Engineering]]

Brazil

2010-08-14T05:01:35Z

Amccloud: Added information

{{Country
|name =''República Federativa do Brasil''
|map =Brazil rel94.jpg
|map2 =Brazil1.png
|flag =Flag of Brazil.png
|arms =Arms of Brazil.png
|capital =Brasília
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =Portuguese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,597 sq mi
|pop =190,010,647(2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$1.701 trillion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$9,488 (2006)
|currency =real
|idd =
|tld =
}}
Located in [[South America]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> '''Brazil''' has the third largest area among American countries and the second largest population, having a total of 184 million people as of July 2004.<ref>[http://www.brasil.gov.br/ingles/about_brazil Brazilian Government Web Portal]</ref> Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. About three quarters of all Brazilians belong to the Roman Catholic Church; most others are Protestant, members of a growing evangelical movement, or follow practices derived from African religions. [[São Paulo]] is its largest city, and the famous [[Rio de Janeiro]] is a major port city and former capital of Brazil. Brasilia is the present capital and became so in 1960 after it was planned and developed in 1956.

==Geography==
Brazil's topography includes the world's largest rain forest, which occupies roughly two-thirds of country. Through this forest run the many tributaries of the Amazon, second-longest river (after the Nile) in the world.
*Area: 8,511,965 sq. km. (3,290,000 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than the U.S.
*Cities: Capital--Brasilia (pop. 2.5 million). Other cities--Sao Paulo (10.9 million), Rio de Janeiro (6.1 million), Belo Horizonte (2.4 million), Salvador (2.9 million), Fortaleza (2.4 million), Recife (1.5 million), Porto Alegre (1.4 million), Curitiba (1.8 million).
*Terrain: Dense forests in northern regions including Amazon Basin; semiarid along northeast coast; mountains, hills, and rolling plains in the southwest, including Mato Grosso; midwestern savannahs; the world's largest wetland area; and coastal lowland.
*Climate: Mostly tropical or semitropical with temperate zone in the south.

==People==
With its estimated 186 million inhabitants, Brazil has the largest population in Latin America and the fifth-largest in the world. The majority of its people live in the south-central area, which includes the industrial cities of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte. Urban growth has been rapid; by 2005, 81% of the total population was living in urban areas. This growth has aided economic development but also has created serious social, security, environmental, and political problems for major cities.

Six major groups make up the Brazilian population: the Portuguese, who colonized Brazil in the 16th century; Africans brought to Brazil as slaves; various other European, Middle Eastern, and Asian immigrant groups who have settled in Brazil since the mid-19th century; and indigenous peoples of Tupi and Guarani language stock. Intermarriage between the Portuguese and indigenous people or slaves was common. Although the major European ethnic stock of Brazil was originally Portuguese, subsequent waves of immigration have contributed to a diverse ethnic and cultural heritage.
[[File:Brasil 2.JPG|240px|left]]
From 1875 until 1960, about 5 million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, settling mainly in the four southern states of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Immigrants have come mainly from Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Poland, and the Middle East. The largest Japanese community outside Japan is in Sao Paulo. Despite class distinctions, national identity is strong, and racial friction is a relatively new phenomenon. Indigenous full-blooded Indians, located mainly in the northern and western border regions and in the upper Amazon Basin, constitute less than 1% of the population. Their numbers are declining as contact with the outside world and commercial expansion into the interior increase. Brazilian Government programs to establish reservations and to provide other forms of assistance have existed for years but are controversial and often ineffective.

Brazil prohibits [[abortion]] unless necessary to save the life of the mother. Sometimes courts have authorized [[abortion]] in specific cases of rape or fetal handicap.<ref>http://www.hli.org/brazil.html</ref>

== Government ==
[[Image:Lula da Silva.jpg|right|200px|thumb|President Lula and wife Marisa Leticia.]]
Brazil is a federal republic with 26 states and a federal district. The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet. There are 81 senators, three for each state and the Federal District, and 513 deputies. Senate terms are eight years, staggered so that two-thirds of the upper house is up for election at one time and one-third four years later. Chamber terms are four years, with elections based on a complex system of proportional representation by states. Each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats; the largest state delegation (Sao Paulo's) is capped at 70 seats. This system is weighted in favor of geographically large but sparsely populated states.

Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The major political parties are:
*Workers' Party (PT-center-left)
*Liberal Front Party (PFL-right)
*Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center)
*Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB-center-left)
*Progressive Party (PP-right)
*Brazilian Labor Party (PTB-center-right)
*Liberal Party (PL-center-right)
*Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB-left)
*Popular Socialist Party (PPS-left)
*Democratic Labor Party (PDT-left)
*Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB-left)
*Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL-left)
President Lula was re-elected October 29, 2006 in a second round victory with over sixty percent of the vote, over Geraldo Alckmin of the PSDB. Lula’s PT party failed to win a majority in either the lower or upper houses in concurrent legislative elections and will be obliged to form a coalition with the centrist PMDB party -- which won the most seats in the lower house and may end up with the largest number in the Senate -- and a collection of minor parties. However, party loyalty is weak in Brazil, and it is common for politicians to switch parties, changing the balance of power in Congress. The PT won five of twenty-seven governorships, but the opposition PSDB remains in control of the critical states of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. The PMDB, as in the legislative elections, won the most governorships of any one party, controlling seven states. Because of the mandatory revenue allocation to states and municipalities provided for in the 1988 constitution, Brazilian governors and mayors have exercised considerable power since 1989.

Lula’s electoral victory came despite a series of corruption scandals that resulted in the resignation of senior PT officials and the electoral defeat of several congressmen from parties allied to the PT. At least four congressional investigations are ongoing, though Lula has yet to be personally linked to any of the scandals.

===Chief of State and Cabinet Members===
[[Image:Brasilia - Congress.jpg|thumb|200px|Brazilian Congress]]
*President--Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva
*Vice President--Jose Alencar Gomes da Silva
*Minister of Defense--Nelson Jobim
*Minister of Finance--Guido Mantega
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Celso Amorim
*Minister of Development, Industry & Trade--Miguel Jorge Filho
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Ronaldo Sardenberg
{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
Brazil has traditionally been a leader in the inter-American community and played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere. Brazil supported the Allies in both World Wars. During World War II, its expeditionary force in Italy played a key role in the Allied victory at Monte Castello. It is a member of the Organization of American States (OAS) and a party to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty). Recently, Brazil has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and is a founding member of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Community of South American Nations (CASN) and Mercosul, a customs union including Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela and Brazil, with Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador as associate members.

Along with Argentina, Chile, and the U.S., Brazil is one of the guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador peace process. Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former Belgian Congo, Cyprus, Mozambique, Angola, East Timor, and most recently Haiti. Brazil is currently leading the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti. Brazil served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council from 2004-2005. Prior to this, it had been a member of the UN Security Council four times. Brazil is lobbying for a permanent position on the Council.

As Brazil's domestic economy has grown and diversified, the country has become increasingly involved in international economic and trade policy discussions. For example, Brazil has been a leader of the G-20 group of nations in the WTO Doha Round talks. The U.S., Western Europe, and Japan are primary markets for Brazilian exports and sources of foreign lending and investment. China is a growing market for Brazilian exports. Brazil also has bolstered its commitment to nonproliferation through ratification of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signing a full-scale nuclear safeguard agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), acceding to the Treaty of Tlatelolco, and joining the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

== Economy ==
[[File:ChristredeemerRio.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Christ the Redeemer'', overlooking Rio de Janeiro]]
Brazil's economy, aided by a benign international environment, grew approximately 2.9% in 2005 and 3.7% in 2006. (Note: In early 2007, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) revised its methodology for computing gross domestic product and announced revised figures for 2000-2006.) Sustained growth, coupled with booming exports, healthy external accounts, moderate inflation, decreasing unemployment, and reductions in the debt-to-GDP ratio. President Lula and his economic team have implemented prudent fiscal and monetary policies and have pursued necessary micro-economic reforms.

Brazil has made progress but significant vulnerabilities remain. Despite registering year-on-year declines from 2004 to 2006, Brazil's (largely domestic) government debt remains high, at 50% of GDP. Total foreign debt, while falling, is still large in relation to Brazil's export base. Over time this concern will be reduced by healthy export growth, which has anchored the positive trade and current accounts. Personal incomes improved since 2004 after a significant decline over the previous decade. Income and land distribution remains skewed.

Sustaining high growth rates in the longer term depends on the impact of President Lula's structural reform program and efforts to build a more welcoming climate for investment, both domestic and foreign. In its first year, the Lula administration passed key tax and pension reforms to improve the government fiscal accounts. Judicial reform and an overhaul of the bankruptcy law were passed in late 2004, along with tax measures to create incentives for long-term savings and investments.

Legislation promoting public private partnerships, a key effort to attract private investment to infrastructure, also passed in 2004. Labor reform and proposals to increase autonomy for the Central Bank are pending. In January 2007, the Lula administration announced a package of reforms to increase public investment and control spending growth. Despite this well-considered reform agenda, much remains to be done to improve the regulatory climate for investments, particularly in the energy sector; to simplify tax systems at the state and federal levels; and to further reform the pension system.

===Trade Policy===
President Lula has made economic growth and poverty alleviation top priorities. Export promotion is a main component in plans to generate growth and reduce what is seen as a vulnerability to international financial market gyrations. To increase exports, the government is seeking access to foreign markets through trade negotiations and increased export promotion as well as government financing for exports.

To increase its international profile (both economically and politically), the Lula administration is seeking expanded trade ties with developing countries, as well as a strengthening of the Mercosul (Mercosur in Spanish) customs union with Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina. In 2004, Mercosul concluded free trade agreements with Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru, adding to its existing agreements with Chile and Bolivia to establish a commercial base for the newly-launched South American Community of Nations. Mercosul is pursuing free trade negotiations with Mexico and Canada and has resumed trade negotiations with the EU. The trade bloc also plans to launch trilateral free trade negotiations with India and South Africa, building on partial trade liberalization agreements concluded with these countries in 2004. In July 2006, Venezuela was admitted to the trade bloc as a full member China has increased its importance as an export market for Brazilian soy, iron ore and steel, becoming Brazil's fourth largest trading partner and a potential source of investment.

===Reform Agenda===
In 2003, Congress passed Lula's key reforms of the public sector pension system and the tax code. The 2004 legislative season was not very productive, in part because of a political scandal early in the year followed by campaigning for the October municipal elections. In December 2004, several key bills passed into law, including a reform of the judicial system, a modern bankruptcy law, and Public Private Partnerships to fund infrastructure projects. In March 2005, a law to legalize biotechnology crops and stem cell research passed. The domestic political scandal, which surfaced in June 2005 and led to multiple congressional investigations, sidetracked most reform legislation for the remainder of the 2005 and 2006 sessions.

===Agriculture===
Agriculture is a major sector of the Brazilian economy, and is key for economic growth and foreign exchange. Agriculture accounts for 8% of GDP (30% when including agribusiness) and 40% of Brazilian exports. Brazil enjoyed a positive agricultural trade balance of $43 billion in 2006. Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugar cane, coffee, tropical fruits, frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ), and has the world's largest commercial cattle herd (50% larger than the U.S.) at 170 million head. Brazil is also an important producer of soybeans (second to the United States), corn, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, and forest products. The remainder of agricultural output is in the livestock sector, mainly the production of beef and poultry (second to the United States), pork, milk, and seafood.

===Other Aspects===
Forests cover half of Brazil, with the largest rain forest in the world located in the Amazon Basin. Recent migrations into the Amazon and large-scale burning of forest areas have brought international attention. The government has reduced incentives for such activity and is implementing an ambitious environmental plan that includes an Environmental Crimes Law with serious penalties for infractions.

Brazil has one of the most advanced industrial sectors in Latin America. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles and parts, other machinery and equipment, steel, textiles, shoes, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, and petrochemicals, to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. Most major automobile producers have established production facilities in Brazil.

Brazil has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. Mail and telecommunications are the largest, followed by banking, energy, commerce, and computing. During the 1990s, Brazil's financial services industry underwent a major overhaul and is relatively sound. The financial sector provides local firms a wide range of financial products. The largest financial firms are Brazilian (and the two largest banks are government-owned), but U.S. and other foreign firms have an important share of the market.

Privatization triggered a flood of investors after 1996. The yearly investment average in the telecommunications sector the 4 years prior to the start of privatization was R$5.8 billion, and the annual average for the four years following privatization was R$16.3 billion, nearly tripling. Investment in the electrical power sector increased from R$5.3 billion annually in the pre-privatization era to R$7.2 billion. U.S. companies provided a great deal of this influx of cash. After 2000, many of these investors suffered huge losses in the face of adverse regulatory decisions and especially the sharp depreciation of the real. The energy sector was especially hard hit.

In 2001, Brazil experienced an electricity crisis due to inadequate rainfall for its hydroelectric system and insufficient new investment in the sector. Mandatory rationing and price hikes were sufficient to prevent blackouts. The rationing system officially ended on March 1, 2002. Lula’s then-Energy Minister unveiled an energy plan in July 2003, which left many vital details undefined and most investors dissatisfied.

The Government of Brazil has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. In the mid-1980s, imports accounted for more than 70% of Brazil's oil and derivatives needs; the net figure is nearing zero. Brazil is expected to become a net exporter of oil in 2007 as output from the Campos Basin continues to increase. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectric power. Of its total installed electricity-generation capacity of 90,000 megawatts, hydrological power accounts for 66,000 megawatts (74%).

Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality, coking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply.

==History==
Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500. The colony was ruled from Lisbon until 1808, when Dom Joao VI and the rest of the Portuguese royal family fled from Napoleon's army, and established its seat of government in Rio de Janeiro. Dom Joao VI returned to Portugal in 1821. His son declared Brazil's independence on September 7, 1822, and became emperor with the title of Dom Pedro I. His son, Dom Pedro II, ruled from 1831 to 1889, when a federal republic was established in a coup led by Deodoro da Fonseca, Marshal of the Army. Slavery had been abolished a year earlier by the Regent Princess Isabel while Dom Pedro II was in Europe.
[[Image:Pan de azucar.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pan de Azucar (Sugarloaf Mountain) in Rio de Janeiro]]
From 1889 to 1930, the government was a constitutional republic, with the presidency alternating between the dominant states of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. This period ended with a military coup that placed Getulio Vargas, a civilian, in the presidency; Vargas remained as dictator until 1945. Between 1945 and 1961, Jose Linhares, Gaspar Dutra, Vargas himself, Café Filho, Carlos Luz, Nereu Ramos, Juscelino Kubitschek, and Janio Quadros were elected presidents. When Quadros resigned in 1961, Vice President Joao Goulart succeeded him.

Goulart's years in office were marked by high inflation, economic stagnation, and the increasing influence of radical political elements. The armed forces, alarmed by these developments, staged a coup on March 31, 1964. The coup leaders chose as president Humberto Castello Branco, followed by Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967-69), Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1969-74), and Ernesto Geisel (1974-79), all of whom were senior army officers. Geisel began a democratic opening that was continued by his successor, Gen. Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo (1979-85). Figueiredo not only permitted the return of politicians exiled or banned from political activity during the 1960s and 1970s, but also allowed them to run for state and federal offices in 1982.
[[File:Brasil.JPG|240px|left]]
At the same time, an electoral college consisting of all members of congress and six delegates chosen from each state continued to choose the president. In January 1985, the electoral college voted Tancredo Neves from the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) into office as President. However, Neves became ill in March and died a month later. His Vice President, former Senator Jose Sarney, became President upon Neves' death. Brazil completed its transition to a popularly elected government in 1989, when Fernando Collor de Mello won 53% of the vote in the first direct presidential election in 29 years. In 1992, a major corruption scandal led to his impeachment and ultimate resignation. Vice President Itamar Franco took his place and governed for the remainder of Collor's term culminating in the October 3, 1994 presidential elections, when Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected President with 54% of the vote. Cardoso took office January 1, 1995, and pursued a program of ambitious economic reform. He was re-elected in October 1998 for a second four-year term. Luiz Inacio da Silva, commonly known as Lula, was elected president in 2002, after his fourth campaign for the office.

President Lula, a former union leader, is Brazil's first working-class president. Since taking office he has taken a prudent fiscal path, warning that social reforms would take years and that Brazil had no alternative but to maintain tight fiscal austerity policies. Economic growth in 2004 and the first half of 2005 was strong with increases in employment and real wages. Growth slowed somewhat in the second half of 2005, but rebounded modestly in 2006.

==See also==
* [[Campinas Brazil Temple]]
* [[Gallery of South-American painting]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

 

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm]}}}.
|}

 

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:Brazil]]

Caldera

2010-08-14T04:53:25Z

Amccloud:

[[Image:OkmokCaldera.jpg|300px|thumb|Okmok Caldera, in the Aleutian Islands]]
A '''caldera''' is a large, circular depression that is formed by the collapse of the [[volcano|volcanic]] cone after a large eruption. Caldera differ from [[crater|craters]] in that they are larger, and craters are caused by rock removal during an eruption.

== Examples of Caldera in the United States ==

[[Crater Lake]] - [[Oregon]]

[[Valles Caldera]] - [[Jemez Mountains]], [[New Mexico]]

[[Yellowstone Caldera]] - [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Wyoming]]

== References ==

[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/caldera.html USGS Photo Glossary of Volcanic Terms]

[http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volcus/ustext.html USGS - Volcanoes of the United States]

[[Category:Volcanology]]

Serotonin

2010-08-14T04:48:16Z

Amccloud: minor addition.

{{jargon}}
'''Serotonin''' or '''5-Hydroxytryptamine''' (5-HT) is a [[neurotransmitter]] synthesized from the [[amino acid]] tryptophan in the [[central nervous system]] and the gastrointestinal tract. Serotonin is thought to play an important role in a number of physiological and psychological functions, including apetite, thermoregulation, sleep, alertness, and mood.

Most of the body's serotonin is found within the gastrointestinal tract (nearly 80%). It is synthesized when an organism is exposed to light, promoting apetite. Excessive amounts of serotonin are collected by blood platelets found in veins near the gut. Serotonin deficiencies can be caused by excessive or undereating, as well as a lack of sunlight or if too much is collected by the platelets.

The source of serotonin within the CNS is the Raphe Nuclei in the brainstem.

Deficiencies in serotonin are vulnerable to disorders such as clinical [[depression]], Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, [[anxiety|anxiety disorders]], [[bipolar disorder]], irritable bowel syndrome, ear infections, and [[migraine]]s. Also, an organism's activity cycle is affected, changing the organism's eating and sleeping habits. Consequently, medications such as antidepressants increase serotonin levels in the brain, or stabilise them, and are often used to treat these disorders in mammals.

==References==
1. Saladin's Anatomy & Physiology 5th Edition

[[Category:Anatomy]]

Hurricane Gustav

2010-08-14T04:41:24Z

Amccloud: I believe Haiti is in the Caribbean.

[[Image:Hurricane Gustav.gif|right|300px|thumb|Hurricane Gustav on September 1, 2008]] '''Hurricane Gustav''' was a major [[hurricane]] that formed August 25, 2008 near Port-au-Prince, [[Haiti]], in the [[Caribbean]]. Although it was a category 3 hurricane it downgraded to a category 1 on September 1st when it hit the [[United States]] Gulf Coast states. It is estimated that it has resulted in the deaths of 96 people in Haiti, the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Jamaica]], [[Cuba]] and the United States. Mandatory evacuation orders of 1.9 million people took place in the state of [[Louisiana]] and 200,000 people in [[New Orleans]] alone. "We want everybody... we want 100 percent [[evacuation]]. If you decide to stay, you are on your own" New Orleans Mayor [[Ray Nagin]] said.<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/08/31/2351178.htm</ref> Evacuations along the [[Alabama]] and [[Mississippi]] Gulf Coast also took place. Louisiana [[Governor]] [[Bobby Jindal]] declared a state of emergency, activating between 3,000 and 8,000 members of the Louisiana National Guard. The states response was much more improved compared to the response to the 2005 [[Hurricane Katrina]], with Governor Jindal saying, "our state is better prepared that it has been before."<ref>http://www.nola.com/hurricane/index.ssf/2008/08/gov_bobby_jindal_declares_pres.html</ref> New Orleans' new and improved levees, which were still being rebuilt three years after Hurricane Katrina did not break, only having water sloshing over it for a period of time.<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,414622,00.html</ref> There was however, severe storm surge flooding in many parts of Louisiana.

==Political Impact==
Hurricane Gustav hit New Orleans on the start of the 2008 [[Republican]] National Convention. Because of this [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] and [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]] were unable to attend. The first day of the Republican convention focused almost entirely on Hurricane relief and raising money for organizations like the [[Red Cross]]. Former [[Democratic]] National Committee chairman Donald Fowler responded to the timing, saying:

''"The hurricane’s going to hit New Orleans about the time they [Republican Convention] start. The timing is — at least it appears now that it’ll be there Monday. That just demonstrates that [[God]]’s on our side."''

He would later apologize.<ref>http://canadianpress.google.com/article/ALeqM5gq6nPDr8rAx2DW8eaPVPDQy_WyYA</ref> Popular filmmaker and [[liberal]] activist [[Michael Moore]] said on the Hurricane,

''"Gustav is proof that there is a God in Heaven."''<ref>http://trailblazersblog.dallasnews.com/archives/2008/08/michael-moore-gustav-is-proof.html</ref>
{{Clear}}

[[Image:Storm gustav.jpg|left|thumb|320px|Mon Sep 1, 2008, 3:25 AM, before "Hurricane Gustav", a man hauls bags down Bourbon Street in the French Quarter of New Orleans.]]

==See Also==
* [[Hurricane Katrina]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
[http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/ National Hurricane Center Website]

[[Category:Natural Disasters]]

Climate cycles

2010-08-14T04:36:57Z

Amccloud: Adjust sentence structure.

'''Climate cycles''' are natural trends in which [[temperature]]s fluctuate on large time-scales. It can range from minor fluctuations over a few centuries to massive shifts in climate over thousands of years.

Using proxy data from various natural sources (including deuterium content in ice cores, calcium content and thickness of sea shells and tree ring growth data) we can establish that these cycles do exist, and that they occur for several reasons, perhaps the most prominent of which is the Milkanovitch cycle.

However, whilst the variation over large time-scales is extreme (deviating from the long-term average by as much as ten degrees Celsius at a time), the changes are usually very gradual and take place over many millennia.

== See Also ==

* [[Global Warming]]

[[Category:Global Warming]]

Apartheid

2010-08-08T05:26:32Z

Amccloud: Word not needed, grammer clean up.

'''Apartheid''' (meaning ''separateness'' in [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]), was a social and political policy of racial [[segregation]] which was enforced by white minority governments in [[South Africa]] from the time the state of South Africa was created in 1909 (with the South Africa Act) until June 17 1991 when the final Apartheid laws were abolished in Parliament.

==Verwoerd and the Bantustans==
Laws passed in 1950 forced a separation of non-whites from whites in South African society. The first, the ''Population Registration Act'', had people register with a racial classification board to determine "officially" if they belonged to one of four racial groups: white, African, Colored, or Indian. The second, the Group Areas Act, was the enforced relocation of non-whites to the outskirts of various cities; to compel these people into the new "townships", which were in essence little more than shanty towns. The government ordered the bulldozing of once-vibrant mixed-race communities; the non-white inhabitants, especially the Africans, were ordered to carry passbooks to go from place to place in white areas. [http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/unit.php?id=5&page=2] Likewise, whites were ordered to relocate from the areas which they settled, that historically belonged to blacks.

Dr. [[Hendrik F. Verwoerd]], Prime Minister of South Africa from 1957 until 1966, designed a system that expanded the scope and impact of apartheid. Blacks were given a limited education which guaranteed them menial job opportunities as opposed to whites [http://www.stanford.edu/~jbaugh/saw/Chloe_Bantu_Education.html]. The ''Reservation of Separate Amenities Act'', passed in 1953, ordered the segregation of blacks at all public facilities, including post offices, public transportation, beaches, sports venues, parks, toilets, and even cemeteries. [http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/unit.php?id=5&page=2]

:''"There is no place for him [the African] in the European community above the level of certain forms of labor. Within his own community, however, all doors are open. For that reason it is to no avail for him to receive a training which has as its aim absorption in the European community, where he cannot be absorbed."'' Hendrik F. Verwoerd (1954) [http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/unit.php?id=5]

Verwoerd had also insisted, and succeeded in getting, limited self-administration in the black reservations (called "homelands") of the Transkei, Ciskei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, Ganzankulu, KwaNdebele, KwaZulu, [[Lebowa]], and QwaQwa, which meant they were semi-autonomous. This had also meant that the homelands were now responsible for their own societal and economic problems; it also had the benefit for the white-controlled South African government that a huge majority of blacks in the country were no longer citizens, and therefore ineligible to vote, however, all blacks gained full voting rights in the bantustans. [http://www.suedafrika.net/history/eh_apart2.htm]

==Independence of four Bantustans==
Four of the Bantustans, Transkei (1976), Ciskei (1981), Bophuthatswana (1977), and Venda (1979), were eventually declared independent nations by South Africa, albeit without any international recognition other than from each other.

During their period of independence, these four nations were often derided by critics claiming they were [[puppet government]]s of South Africa, but the Transkei government had a rocky relationship with South Africa, breaking diplomatic relations between 1978 and 1980 over territorial disputes, and then undergoing a military [[coup d'etat]] in 1987 after which Transkei became an ally of, and safe haven for, the [[African National Congress]].

In Bophuthatswana on the other hand, an attempted coup in 1988 was suppressed by South Africa, who restored president Kgosi Lucas Manyane Mangope. The Sun City [[casino]] was located in Bophuthatswana, where [[gambling]] was legal (it was illegal in South Africa). Ciskei and Venda both underwent military coups in 1990, which South Africa did not suppress.

All four countries were re-incorporated into South Africa in April 1994 following the end of Apartheid and the adoption of a new South African constitution, but Bophuthatswana and Ciskei at first declared their refusal to re-integrate and their intention to remain independent nations. Both standoffs ended after mutinies and coup d'etats deposed their respective leaders within two weeks of each other in March 1994.

==1983 Whites-only referendum==
In 1983 President PW Botha put the question of allowing Colored and Indian representation to the White electorate. 66% of whites voted to allow Coloreds and Indians their own houses of parliament (called the House of Representatives and the House of Delegates respectively).

Although many ultra-nationalistic and conservative whites attacked the move as it was power-sharing (which they feared would result in Black rule, and indeed it did some 11 years later).

==The Troubles==
The followers of Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi (Zulu King) and his Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) were staunchly pro-separation and even entered into a short-lived non-aggression pact with the [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging|AWB]] in 1993.

However the African National Congress, who drew members from most other Black tribes, were pro-integration and, as such, Zulu workers who had migrated to White South Africa were frequently involved in clashes with ANC supporters in the townships (Black areas adjoining many White towns and cities).

Between 1986 and 1994 some 10,000 IFP members were murdered by ANC supporters, many in a brutal fashion, the practice of "necklacing" was very popular amongst ANC members. Necklacing entailed placing a petrol-filled tire around the neck of a victim and then setting it alight.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*''Apartheid: A History'' by Brian Lapping

[[Category:Apartheid]]
[[Category:South Africa]]