Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Muslim

2008-11-24T20:41:24Z

Adel:

A '''Muslim''' is someone who is "[[Submission|submissive]] to the will of [[God]]".<ref> [http://www.hilalplaza.com/islamic-architecture/ Islamic Architecture - Principles] </ref>
In particular, the term ''Muslim'' refers to an adherent of [[Islam]].<ref>The word "Muslim" (or "Moslem") refers to one who submits to God and believes in Islam. [http://media.www.crusaderonline.com/media/storage/paper990/news/2001/10/12/UndefinedSection/What-Do.Muslims.Believe-2470847.shtml What do Muslims believe?] </ref> True Muslims must honor the ''Shahada'', both submitting to the will of Allah and accepting the prophet Muhammad as His apostle.

==Notes==
<references />

Benjamin Franklin

2008-10-15T14:06:25Z

Adel:

[[Image:Benjamin.jpg|thumb|'''Benjamin Franklin''' <br>by Jean Baptiste Greuze (1777)|right]]
'''Benjamin Franklin''' (January 17, 1706, [[Boston]] – April 17, 1790 [[Philadelphia]]), was a printer, scientist, inventor, philosopher, and diplomat, and is today considered one of America's [[Founding Fathers]].

==Biography==

Early in life, Franklin developed a love of reading. As he recalled in his autobiography, ''"From a child I was fond of reading, and all the little money that came into my hands was ever laid out in books. Pleased with the Pilgrim's Progress, my first collection was of John Bunyan's works in separate little volumes. My old favorite author, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ... has been translated into most of the languages of [[Europe]], and suppose it has been more generally read than any other book, except perhaps the Bible."''

As a youth, Franklin was apprenticed to his older brother James, as a printer. Using several different pen names, Benjamin contributed many articles to Jame's [[newspaper]]. However, Benjamin felt his brother mistreated him and in 1723, he ran away to Philadelphia, then the largest city in British North America.

In Philadelphia, Franklin began publishing the ''Pennsylvania Gazette'', which was the longest lived and most successful of colonial newspapers. He published his ''Poor Richard's Almanack'' for twenty-five years; it was filled with witty sayings penned by Franklin and others. Franklin often borrowed material and rewrote it as he saw fit.

Franklin became one of Philadelphia's leading citizens, founding a sanitation department, a fire brigade, the American Philosophical Society, and the first circulating library in British North America.

By age 42, Franklin was wealthy enough to retire from news papering, and devoted most of his time to his scientific pursuits. Franklin invented bi-focal lenses, a heat efficient stove, and the swivel chair. His famous experiment with a kite won him membership in the prestigious Royal Society, but it also had a practical effect. It also led to Franklin’s invention of the lighting rod, and increased his fortune when he was contracted to outfit all the ships in the Royal Navy with lighting rods. By 1750, Franklin was easily the most famous of the King’s North American subjects.

While Franklin thought of himself as a loyal subject, he did question some of the Crown’s actions. In 1754, he proposed the Albany Plan of Union, which would have united the colonies (and the Iroquois League as well) under a Royal governor, and given the colonies the power to tax themselves. Many of the colonies did not send representatives to Albany, and nothing came of the plan.

Franklin put his prestige on the line to assist the expedition of British general Edward Braddock to capture Fort Duquesne (present day Pittsburgh) from the French. Pennsylvania’s Quaker dominated legislature refused to help provide supplies for the expedition, so Franklin made an appeal for colonists to provide provisions, horses, and wagons for Braddock’s army. In his autobiography, Franklin recalled questioning Braddock about the expedition’s chances of success. Braddock assured him he would easily capture the fort. After the disaster that Braddock met on the Monongahela, Franklin was less sanguine about accepting professional military opinion.

In 1757, Franklin went to London to represent Pennsylvania in its quarrel with William Penn’s heirs (Pennsylvania was the last of the propriety colonies). He remained abroad for eighteen years, not returning to American until 1775.

During Franklin’s tenure in England, he also represented several other colonies and became a regular observer, and unofficial representative of the colonies. In 1765, he assured British politicians that Americans would accept the Stamp Act, but news of colonial protest caused him to back away from that position. Afterwards, Franklin regularly opposed English attempts to tax the colonies.

Returning from England in 1775, Franklin surprised some by coming out in favor of independence. For Franklin, this stance carried a personal price. His son William, the Royal Governor of New Jersey, remained loyal to the Crown, and father and son never reconciled.

He understood the risks the [[Founding Fathers]] were taking and told them, "We must all hang together, or we shall hang separately."

Until the end of the American Revolution, he was easily the most famous American in the world. He was one of the most prominent of the [[Founding Fathers]], early political figures and statesmen of the [[United States]].

He served as the Continental Congress [[ambassador]] to [[France]], where where he was instrumental in obtaining military and economic support for the struggle against England. In Paris, Franklin attracted attention by attending many of the salons and downplayed his status as Dr. Franklin. Instead, he sometimes cultivated the image of a rustic American, sometimes wearing a coonskin cap. Franklin's popularity helped in securing monetary and later military support from France.

Franklin is one of the few non-presidents whose likeness appears on U.S. currency. Franklin graces the $100 bill while Alexander Hamilton appears on the $10 bill.

Franklin is responsible for the nomenclature of "positive" and "negative" charge. He believed he could tell the direction in which electricity traveled by observing sparks. Unfortunately he was wrong; the electrons, which are the particles carrying ordinary [[electricity]], move in the opposite of the direction he thought they did. As a result, when electrons were discovered, according to Franklin's designation they had to be considered as having a negative charge — creating a minor headache for scientists and engineers.

Benjamin Franklin guided the establishment of the University of Pennsylvania, which was chartered as nonsectarian. According to the University, it was "a new type of learning institution, that unlike other [[American]] Colonial colleges, would not focus on education for the clergy, but would instead prepare students for lives of business and public service. The proposed program of study would become the nation's first modern liberal arts curriculum."<ref>http://www.upenn.edu/about/heritage.php</ref> In ''Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania [sic]'', (1749) he outlines an essentially secular curriculum. Religion is to be taught under the rubric of History; Franklin, however, makes a point of saying that
:"History ''will also afford frequent Opportunities of showing the Necessity of a ''Publick Religion,'' from its Usefulness to the Publick; the advantage of a Religious Character among private Persons; the Mischiefs of Superstition, &c. and the Excellency of the CHRISTIAN RELIGION above all others, antient and modern."''

Before the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin was a frequent visitor to [[England]]. He was a member of the [[Lunar Society]] based in [[Birmingham]], creators of the Industrial Revolution, and also the [[Hellfire Club]] of Sir Francis Dashwood.

Franklin believed strongly in the importance of political freedom to the American experiment. As such, he remarked, ''"those who would give up a little liberty, to gain a little security, deserve neither, and will lose both,"'' a stern warning applicable especially in today's world.

==Religious Beliefs==

Franklin practiced deism as a young man, though he would eventually develop into a true Christian. In a draft autobiography written mostly in 1771, nearly 20 years prior to his death, Franklin described how he came to deism in his youth.<ref>A year after Benjamin Franklin's death, his unfinished draft autobiography, entitled "Memoires De La Vie Privee," was published in Paris in March of 1791. [http://www.earlyamerica.com/lives/franklin/] </ref> He recalled that his ''"parents had early given me religious impressions, and brought me through my childhood piously in the Dissenting way. But I was scarce fifteen, when, after doubting by turns of several points, as I found them disputed in the different books I read, I began to doubt of Revelation itself. Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's Lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist."'' <ref>http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=Fra2Aut.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=all The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, p.57</ref>

Franklin then abandoned his youthful deism in favor of a strong belief in an interventionist God, as reflected by his prayer request during a troubled period of the [[Constitutional Convention]]. In a letter dated March 9, 1790, Franklin expressed his strong faith in God and his acceptance of the possibility of the divinity of Christ:

:''"Here is my Creed: I believe in one God, Creator of the Universe. That he governs it by Providence. That he ought to be worshipped. That the most acceptable Service we render to him is doing good to his other Children. That the soul of Man is immortal, and will be treated with Justice in another Life respecting its conduct in in this. These I take to be the fundamental Principles of all sound Religion, and I regard them as you do in whatever sect I meet with them.

:''"As to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the system of Morals and His Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupting Changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some doubt as to his Divinity; tho' it is a question I need not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm in its being believed, if that belief has the good Consequence, as probably it has, of making his Doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive, that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the Unbelievers in his Government of the world with any peculiar Marks of his Displeasure."'' <ref>http://personal.pitnet.net/primarysources/franklin-stiles.html</ref>

As Franklin grew older, he recognized that Christianity had positive effects on colonial society. Franklin befriended George Whitefield, the best known of the Great Awakening evangelicals. The two also had a business relationship, with Franklin printing nearly all of Whitefield’s North American sermons. After one of Whitefield's sermons, Franklin noted the ''"wonderful...change soon made in the manners of our inhabitants. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, it seem'd as if all the world were growing religious, so that one could not walk thro' the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street."''<ref>The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, p.104-108</ref><ref>At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Franklin proposed a prayer for divine intervention to aid the troubled proceedings.</ref>

==In fiction and popular culture==
===''Ben and Me''===
Robert Lawson's 1939 book, ''Ben and Me: An Astonishing Life of Benjamin Franklin by His Good Mouse Amos,'' is a children's classic continuously in print since publication. It is written at level suitable for ages 10 and up, but is also enjoyed by adults. As the title indicates, the narrator is a mouse. Amos is not very respectful toward Franklin. He see Franklin as absent-minded, lacking in common sense, and barely able to take care of himself. According to Amos, it is Amos himself who inspired, and should be credited with most of Franklin's great inventions. Amos has nothing but scorn for Franklin's "Poor Richard" maxims:
:"'Early to bed, early to rise, makes a healthy, wealthy and wise!' ''Bah!'' When have you been ever been to bed early, or risen early, except when you've had insomnia? Yet you're healthy and wealthy."
:"Perhaps if I lived by the maxim I should also be—wise," he suggested, meekly.
:"That I doubt," I said. "it would require more than a maxim. A miracle, like."

In 1953, Walt Disney made a 20-minute animated short film from the book with Sterling Holloway as Amos, but it failed to capture the spirit of the story and did not even attempt to be faithful to the style of Lawson's illustrations.

In 2006, ''Ben and Me'' was selected for the annual "One Book, One Philadelphia" project, in honor of Franklin's 300th birthday.

== Medicine ==

Benjamin Franklin famously stated:

:"If people let the government decide what foods they eat and what [[Medicine|medicines]] they take, their bodies will soon be in as sorry a state as the souls who live under tyranny."

In the realm of speculation, in 1998 workmen restoring Franklin's [[London]] home dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home,<ref>[http://benfranklin.tribe.net/thread/510cda6f-3ee8-4ef1-86b4-9525f4ed28c4]</ref> the remains showed signs of dissection, and may have been related to medical research of the time. Franklin lived there during the 1750's and 1760's.<ref>[http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0998/0998gaz5.html Bones in the Basement of Franklin's London Digs]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Edmund Burke]]

==References==
<references/>

==Benjamin Franklin's Writings Online==
*[http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/ Yale edition of complete works of Benjamin Franklin]
*[http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin] Collected by Robert A. Morse, 2004.
*[http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html Franklin's Last Will & Testament] Transcription.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Franklin, Benjamin}}
[[Category:Political People]]
[[Category: Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:People who were Educated at Home]]

Damascus

2008-10-09T22:22:21Z

Adel: Added Arabic spelling.

'''Damascus''' (Arabic: دمشق) is the capital of [[Syria]]. It was the intended destination of the Apostle [[Paul]] on the trip that led to his conversion.

[[Category:Asian Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Syria]]

Alchemy

2008-10-09T22:03:29Z

Adel: Fixed spelling issues, added etymology, changed some phrasing.

'''Alchemy''' was a precursor to [[chemistry]]. The word is derived from the [[Arabic]] الكيمية (''Al Kimia)'', meaning "the art of transformation". The key pursuit of alchemy was to discover a way to turn lead into gold, known as the philosopher's stone. This was as much a spiritual quest as it was a scientific one. Unbeknownst to alchemists at the time, gold is an [[element]], and therefore cannot be produced by combining any other elements except through fusion.

=== Symbolism of alchemy ===

The symbolism of alchemy is rich and employs many western and eastern traditions. Some of the important symbols of alchemy are Solomons seal, the hermaphrodite, and the four Elements of wind, fire, earth and, water. These symbols are said to be from the period of the legendary alchemist Hermes Trismegistus, founder of the Hermetic arts. These and the other symbols of alchemy are regarded as having psychological significance by Carl Jung, contemporary of Sigmund Freud.
[[category:chemistry]]

Arabic language

2008-10-09T21:27:42Z

Adel:

[[Image:Arabic speaking world.png|thumb|right|*Green=Official language<br>*Blue=One of several official languages]]
'''Arabic''' ('''اللغة العربية''' "''al-luġatu l-ʿarabiyyah'', or simply '''عربي''' "''arabī''") is a [[Semetic]] language spoken by some 270 million people worldwide. Having it's origins in [[Saudi Arabia]], Arabic is closely related to [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]].

Arabic is a macrolanguage, made up of 27 dialects. Arabic is also the liturgical language of [[Islam]].

The Arabic alphabet includes ''ʼalif'', ''bāʼ'', ''tāʼ'', '''''ṯ'''āʼ'', ''ǧīm'', ''ḥāʼ'', ''ḫāʼ'', ''dāl'', ''ḏāl'', ''rāʼ'', ''zāī'', ''sīn'', ''šīn'', ''ṣād'', ''ḍād'', ''ṭāʼ'', ''ẓāʼ'', ''ʿayn'', ''ġayn'', ''fāʼ'', ''qāf'', ''kāf'', ''lām'', ''mīm'', ''nūn'', ''hāʼ'', ''wāw'', and ''yāʼ''. The language also includes the short vowels fatHa, damma, and kasra, as well as symbols to aid pronunciation such as the sukoon and shadda. These characters are not typically written, appearing mostly in poetry and the Qur'an.

[[category:Semitic Languages]]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Middle East]]

Alkaptonuria

2008-10-05T05:48:03Z

Adel:

Alkaptonuria is a recessive genetic disorder in which the body cannot properly metabolize the amino acid Tyrosine. Its most prominent feature is the discoloration of urine due to an excess of Homogentisic acid. Sir Archibald Edward Garrod first surmised the correlation between enzyme production and genetics when he noticed that children of intermarried couples had alkaptonuria at a much higher rate than those of couples who were not related.

==Source==
Russell, Peter J. iGenetics: A Molecular Approach. San Francisco: Pearson, 2006.

[[Category:Biology]]

Alkaptonuria

2008-10-05T05:41:15Z

Adel: New page: Alkaptonuria is a recessive genetic disorder in which the body cannot properly metabolize the amino acid Tyrosine. Its most prominent feature is the discoloration of urine due to an excess...

Thunder

2008-10-02T20:13:37Z

Adel:

'''Thunder''' is the [[sound]] produced by [[lightning]]. When a lightning bolt occurs it super heats the surrounding air. This causes the air to expand, resulting in an audible shock wave. Though the process is nearly instantaneous, lightning is always seen before thunder due to light traveling faster than sound.

[[Category:Meteorology]]

Debate:If you fail to pray for the Messiah to come, might He abandon us?

2008-10-02T03:06:13Z

Adel:

Many believe that the Almighty will send Moshiach (the Messiah) only if and when we are worthy. Part of this worthiness is prayer. Do we need to pray actively for the Coming, or will [[HaShem]] withhold him from us until we are worthy?

==Yes==

Yes, absolutely need to pray. [[User:Anacom|Anacom]] 23:24, 12 December 2007 (EST)

==No==

I respectfully disagree. Revelations tells of the Second Coming as well as the end of days, so obviously God has included these events as part of his ultimate plan. God's will manifests regardless of anyone else's actions or intentions. The idea that such a significant part of His plan would be contingent upon the will of man strikes me as slightly blasphemous. Revelations also mentions a specific number of saved individuals. Unless this is the exact population at the time of the Coming, we can assume that at least some of the fallen will have failed to have prayed. The Bible has given us evidence that His plan will be carried out regardless of man's actions. Unfortunately the "we" in the question is rather vague. If "we" refers to a certain group or percentage of the population, then the question itself implies that the Messiah will appear even if some people do not pray. Either way, the Coming is fated to occur regardless of how man behaves. --[[User:Adel|Adel]] 23:06, 1 October 2008 (EDT)

[[Category:Conservapedia Debates]]

World War I

2008-10-02T02:02:01Z

Adel:

'''World War I''', also known as the '''First World War''' and '''The Great War''', was waged primarily in [[Europe]] from 1914 to 1918. World War I also saw the first use of [[poison gas]], large artillery, armored [[tank|tanks]], and [[airplane]]s. It was a "[[total war]]" because the governments involved took control over the economy and factories, giving first priority to the goods needed for war. Wage and price controls were imposed, there was rationing of goods for civilians, and free speech was limited. The governments put out [[propaganda]] to maximize support for the war and dislike of the enemy.

On one side of the war were the [[Central Powers]]: [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Germany]], [[Bulgaria]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The [[Allies]] consisted of the [[Britain|British]] and [[France|French Empires]], the Tsarist [[Russian Empire]](until 1917), [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Portugal]], and after 1917 the [[United States]].

=== A Spark Leads to a Fire ===
----
''Main article: [[Causes of World War I]]''

On June 28, 1914, teenage [[Serbia|Serbian]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] [[Gavrilo Princip]] assassinated the [[Austrian]] [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] and his wife Sophie in [[Sarajevo]]. This action led to Austria-[[Hungary]] giving an ultimatum <ref>http://teachers.sduhsd.k12.ca.us/mmontgomery/world_history/world_war1/ultimatum.htm</ref> to Serbia. Serbia agreed to comply with all of the demands, except the ones which violated their sovereignty, and, due to a number of military alliances throughout [[Europe]], a full scale war was soon in progress. Serbia requested support from its ally, [[Russia]], which mobilized its military forces. This mobilization led to [[Germany]] invading both Russia and [[France]] (which had an existing alliance with Russia), which was a part of Germany's [[Schlieffen Plan]] of war on two fronts. En route to France, German forces passed through neutral [[Belgium]]. The violation of this [[neutrality]] led [[Britain]] to declare war on Germany. [[Italy]] had an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but refused to join the war.

Alternative theories cite the building of the Berlin-Baghdad railway and the problems it would have created for England. <ref>http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA138432</ref>

=== Great Battles of World War I ===
----
World War I consisted mostly of [[trench warfare]]. This method of waging war was very slow and messy. Soldiers might wait in their trenches for weeks, only to advance a few feet and wait in a new trench. There were four important battles which were fought before America joined the war.

'''Gallipoli Campaign'''

In 1915, [[Winston Churchill]], then First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a daring plan to attack the [[Dardanelles]], a narrow section of ocean south of what is now [[Turkey]], in order to open a supply route to Russia. Unfortunately, he made his plans based of bad intelligence.
A preliminary attack was launched in February of 1915, bombarding artillery of the Ottoman Empire. However, in March, a fleet of British and French warships attempted to navigate the Dardanelles and ran into mines at its narrowest point (which is only a mile wide).
The British and Churchill, not wanting to admit defeat, diverted British, Australian, New Zealander and French troops from training in [[Egypt]] to their campaign in Turkey. Putting together an amphibious Allied force, a plan was put together to land on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli on April 25. Although the Allies greatly outnumbered the Turks, poor counter-intelligence efforts by the Allies allowed the Ottoman Empire to resupply and reinforce the Gallipoli peninsula. Additionally, the Allies did not understand the terrain adequately and suffered from limited knowledge of their enemy. The Turkish soldiers were also very tenacious and very able fighters.
However, the bloody-mindedness of the British commanders led to nine months wasted on the peninsula, with 44,000 deaths among over 100,000 casualties.

'''[[Battle of Verdun]]'''

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans may have been the most demanding battle in world history. The struggle started when the Germans attacked [[Verdun]], France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts. At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing. At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

'''[[Battle of the Somme]]'''

Also in 1916, and also in France, the British and French armies met at the Somme River and began a massive attack on the Germans in order to distract them from [[Verdun]]. This became the Battle of the Somme, and the fighting was even heard across the British channel in England. First the Allies shelled the Germans to weaken them, and then 100,000 British soldiers charged the enemy. But the shelling did not have its intended effect, as the Germans were dug in too deeply to be affected by it. On July 1, 1916, the Germans killed 20,000 of the British soldiers and wounded over 40,000, making it the single worst day in British military history. This battle, which did not succeed in moving trench lines, eventually involved over 2 million men along a 30-mile front. The British and French lost nearly 750,000 men.

'''[[Third Battle of Ypres]]'''

For 18 months the British hid 19 huge land mines underneath the German lines southeast of Ypres, Belgium, a location that had already seen battles in 1914 and 1915. The British then detonated those massive mines, and charged the German positions in July 1917. At first the strategy worked, as the Germans were confused and disorganized. But the British did not pursue the Germans as quickly as they should have. Rain began to drench the area in one of the wettest fall seasons there in years. Soon the British forces were stuck in a mountain of mud, and this Allied plan was yet another failure.

=== The United States Joins the War ===
----
For the first three years of World War I, the [[United States]] attempted to stay out of the war. The United States had allies and [[citizens]] on both sides of the war, and the decision was not to move, but rather to stay neutral. When the Germans used a [[U-boat]] to sink the ''[[Lusitania]]'' in 1915, killing over one thousand people, the Americans were outraged. Later, when Britain implemented a [[naval]] blockade of Germany, the Germans announced they would sink any ship entering or leaving Britain. They held true to their word and sunk three ships from America with the U-boats. The Germans had taken ads out in most American newspapers, warning Americans that they travelled on British ships at their own risk. However, only the [[Des Moines]] Register ran the ads.<ref> Morgan, Hal. ''More Rumor''. New York: Paradox Press, 1987. </ref>America now had many reasons to fight back, but she was still not ready to join the war.

The German Foreign Minister [[Arthur Zimmermann]] sent an encrypted [[Zimmerman Note|telegram]] to the German ambassador in [[Mexico]] which sought to induce Mexico to declare war on the United States. British intelligence intercepted and deciphered the telegram, however, and gave it to the United States to help the British cause. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] made the contents of the telegram public. The telegram called for Mexico to ally with Germany and go to war with the U.S. It promised that Germany would fund the war and help Mexico regain Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. Zimmermann admitted publicly he sent it; the Mexicans ignored the proposal but American pubic opinion was outraged.

German U-boats now began sinking American ships on sight. On April 2, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] spoke in favor of declaring war on Germany in an address to the joint houses of [[Congress]]. Congress then formally declared war on April 6, 1917.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usofficialawardeclaration.htm</ref>

The Army was expanded by a factor of 100 to 4 million soldiers (all men), and a major expeditionary force was sent to Europe called the [[American Expeditionary Forces]], under command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. Officially the U.S. did not join the Allies and there was no treaty or formal agreement with Britain or France, so Perhaps was practically independent. He was also largely independent of Washington, and allowed to make his own strategic and command decisions.

=== Russia ===
----
As the United States was entering the war on the side of the Allies, Russia suffered two successive internal Revolutions which would later caused it to withdraw from the side of the Allies and leave the war altogether. The [[February Revolution]] overthrew the centuries-old monarchy of the Tsar; the [[October Revolution]] installed the [[communist]] [[Bolshevik Party]] under [[V.I. Lenin]]. The lack of success against the German and Austrian Empires, and the hyperinflation caused by unsustainable military spending by the Russian government led to much internal discontent and economic chaos.

Losses and hardship of the war had weakened Russian [[Czar Nicholas II]]. He abdicated the throne in March 1917 in favor of a provisional government headed by [[Alexander Kerensky]]. Hopes for a democratic revolution still existed at this time. But in October 1917, [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]], and the [[Communist Party]], which was never strong enough to challenge the Czar, overthrew the fledgling provisional government. The Communists later executed every member of the Czar's family including the children.

Lenin became the founder of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] state. He was both a writer and a revolutionary, a rare combination. He was the brother of the "bomb thrower" [[Alexander Ulyanov]] who was hanged for his involvement in terrorist activity and an assassination attempt on Czar Alexander III in 1887. An atheist, he became a [[Marxism|Marxist]] in 1889. He obtained a law degree shortly afterwards, and by 1895 was a subversive who was arrested and sent to the Tsarist gulag along the Lena River in frigid [[Siberia]] where he adopted the name Lenin after the place of his internment. Once he served his time he left for [[Zurich]], where he developed his ideas further and became a leader of the [[Bolsheviks]]. He was returned to Russia by the Germans in the wake of chaos during the [[Kerensky]] regime with the hope to led the Bolsheviks to power and negotiate a peace settlement with the Germans. After the [[Treaty of Versailles]] failed to recognize the settlement between Germany and the Soviet Union in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], he then ruled the Soviet Union and imposed a system of [[Marxism-Leninism]] (communism) that remained in force there until the [[Stalin]]'s rise to power.

=== The Western Front ===
----
The exit of Russia allowed Germany to shift a majority of their troops from the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|eastern front]] to the [[Western Front (World War I)|western front]]. This gave them a final chance to try and break the Allies before the Americans arrived. Known as [[Operation Michael]], the German offensive began in March of 1918.

The Germans launched five major campaigns in a four month period in 1918 on the [[Western Front]]. The Germans had technology and lots of energy. They had elite storm-troopers with [[automatic rifle]]s, light [[machine gun]]s, [[flame-thrower]]s and [[artillery]] fire. They used poisonous [[mustard gas]] lavishly. They easily defeated the British Fifth Army. The Germans were advancing and taking property.

But fresh American troops entered the scene. In the [[Second Battle of the Marne]] in July 1918, the Allies started winning. Nine American divisions fought in this battle about 75 miles northeast of [[Paris]]. The Germans started this battle on another one of their offensives, but the Americans valiantly turned the tables and enabled the Allies to win it. Casualties were enormous for everyone, including the Americans. Former President [[Teddy Roosevelt]]’s son Quentin was killed in this battle.

American Capt. [[Jesse Woolridge]], 38th Inf., 3rd Division described the battle as follows: “It’s [[God]]’s truth that one Company of American soldiers beat and routed a full regiment of picked shock troops of the German Army ... At ten o’clock ... the Germans were carrying back wounded and dead [from] the river bank and we in our exhaustion let them do it - they carried back all but six hundred which we counted later and fifty-two machine guns... We had started with 251 men and 5 lieutenants...I had left 51 men and 2 second lieutenants."

=== The War Ends ===
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As the Americans and the Allies advanced toward Germany, the [[Ottoman Turks]] and [[Bulgarian]]s surrendered. There was a [[revolution]] in Austria-Hungary that overthrew its government, and Germany would not recognize that new government. [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] abdicated his throne in Germany on November 1918, and the Germans formed a new republic. Members of the German republic signed an armistice (agreement to stop fighting) on November 11, 1918. The "war to end all wars", was over.

=== Aftermath ===
----
Austria-Hungary was dismantled, mostly along ethnic lines. The Ottoman Empire was also dismantled. For the first time in over 1000 years [[Palestine]] was not under Muslim control, as Britain assumed control of the area as a colony. Germany was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Versailles]] accepting full responsibility for the war and had to pay for the entire cost of the war. This led Germany into economic collapse and sowed the seeds for anyone who could get them out of this collapse and restore their pride to be view as almost a savior. Italy felt they were shortchanged in their portion of the spoils and led to a bitterness that would cause them to side with Germany in the years ahead. The initial causes of the war, alliances and imperialism, were not dealt with. Only 20 years after the Treaty of Versailles, [[World War II]] would start.

== Chronology of World War I ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-
== '''1914''' ==
|-
| June 28 || In [[Sarajevo]], [[Serbia]], [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]] Archduke [[Franz Ferdinand]] is murdered, and somebody is responsible.
|-
| July 28 || War is declared on [[Serbia]] by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| August 1 || War is declared on [[Russia]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| August 3 || War on [[France]] is declared by [[Germany]]; [[Italy]] remains neutral
|-
| August 4 || [[Belgium]] is invaded by [[Germany]]; War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Britain]]
|-
| August 5-6 || War is declared on [[Russia]] by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]; War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Serbia]]
|-
| August 12 || [[Serbia]] is invaded by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| August 17 || [[East Prussia]] is invaded by [[Russia]]
|-
| August 23 || War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Japan]]
|-
| August 26-29 || [[Russia]] is defeated by [[Germany]] at [[Tannenburg]], [[East Prussia]]
|-
| September 6-10 || Battle of the [[Marne]], [[France]]- [[Germany]] is defeated by [[France]]
|-
| October 19-November 22 || First Battle of [[Ypres]], [[Belgium]]; [[Germany]] is stopped by [[Britain]]
|-
| October 29 || Attacking the [[Russian Black Sea Fleet]], [[Turkey]] enters the war.
|-
| November 5 || War is declared on [[Turkey]] by [[Britain]] and [[France]]
|-
| November 11-25 || [[Russia]] is defeated by [[Germany]] in [[Lodz]], [[Poland]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1915''' ==
|-
| February 23 || Off coast of [[Britain]], first [[German]] [[submarine]] attacks occur
|-
| April 22-May 25 || [[Britain]] holds [[Germany]] at [[Second Battle of Ypres]]; [[poison]] [[gas]] is first used by [[Germany|Germans]]
|-
| April 25 || [[Allies]] land at Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey
|-
| May 7 || [[''Lusitania'']] is sunk by [[German]] [[U-boat]]
|-
| May 23 || The [[Allies]] are joined by [[Italy]]
|-
| August 5 || [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] is captured by [[Germany|Germans]]
|-
| August 6 || [[British]] land at [[Suvla Bay]], [[Gallipoli Peninsula]]
|-
| August 20 || War is declared on [[Turkey]] by [[Italy]]
|-
| September 25 || Western Front ([[Artois]], [[Champagne]], and [[Loos]] in France) is attacked by [[Allies]]
|-
| December 8 || [[Evacuation]] of [[Gallipoli]] is begun by [[Allies]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1916''' ==
|-
| February 21 || In [[France]], the Battle of [[Verdun]] begins by [[Germany]] attacking [[France]]
|-
| March 9 || War is declared on [[Portugal]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| May 31 || [[North Sea]], [[Battle of Jutland]]
|-
| July 1 || Battle of [[Somme]], [[France]] begins
|-
| August 28 || War is declared on [[Romania]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| September 2-3 || [[Britain]] shoots down first [[Zeppelin]] [[German]] [[airships]]
|-
| September 15 || [[Tanks]] used for the first time in war by [[Britain]]
|-
| November 18 || Battle of [[Somme]] ends- [[Britain]] and [[France]] hold the [[Somme River]]
|-
| December 18 || [[France]] defeats [[Germany]], Battle of [[Verdun]] ends
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1917''' ==
|-
| January || [[Palestine]] is entered by [[Britain]]
|-
| February || [[Germany]] declares unrestricted [[U-boat]] warfare and sinks five [[American]] ships
|-
| March 12 || [[Russian Revolution]] begins
|-
| April 6 || War is declared on [[Germany]] by the [[United States]]
|-
| April 9 || Battle of [[Arras]], [[France]]
|-
| April 10 || [[Vimy Ridge]], [[France]] is captured by [[Canadians]]
|-
| April 16-May 9 || [[French]] attack on Second Battle of [[Aisne River]], [[France]]
|-
| May 25 || In [[Britain]], daylight [[bombing]] raids begin
|-
| June 7 || [[Messines Ridge]], [[Belgium]] is attacked by [[British]]
|-
| July 31-November 6 || [[British]] against [[Germans]]- third Battle of [[Ypres]]
|-
| November 6-7 || [[Passchendaele]] is captured by [[Canadians]], ending Battle of [[Ypres]]; [[Bolshevik revolution]] begins in [[Russia]]
|-
| November 20 || [[British]] use large number of [[tanks]] to win Battle of [[Cambrai]]
|-
| December 9 || [[Jerusalem]] in [[Middle East]] is captured by [[British]]; [[Romania]] and [[Central Powers]] make [[Armistice]] (a cease-fire before signing a peace treaty)
|-
| December 15 || [[Armistice]] between [[Russia]] and [[Central Powers]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1918''' ==
|-
| January 18 || [[Fourteen-point Peace Plan]] is proposed by [[Woodrow Wilson|President Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| April 9 || [[Germans]] begin attack in northern [[France]]
|-
| May 27-30 || [[Allies|Allied]] line on the [[Marne River]] is broken by [[Germans]]
|-
| August 8 || [[Germans]] are routed by [[Allies]] at Battle of [[Amiens]]
|-
| September 26 || Final [[Allies|Allied]] attack begins
|-
| October 1 || [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] is captured by [[British]]
|-
| October 30 || [[Italy]] defeats [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]] at Battle of [[Vittorio Veneto]]; [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Turkey]]
|-
| November 3 || [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| November 9 || Revolution in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]; throne is given up by [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], [[Germany]] becomes a republic
|-
| November 11 || [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Germany]]; War on [[Western Front]] ends
|}

==Further reading==
*''War By Time-Table: How the First World War Began'', A.J.P. Taylor, New York: American Heritage, 1969.
*''1914 - 1918: The History of the First World War'', David L. Stevenson, Penguin Press, 2004

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:World War I| ]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.onpower.org/history_wwi.html/ World War I]
* [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1345 "American Foreign Policy: The Turning Point, 1898–1919," by Ralph Raico]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/working_papers/article.asp?id=1499 "Government and the Economy: The World Wars," by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard91.html "War Collectivism in World War I," by Murray N. Rothbard]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=40&articleID=506 "The Great War Retold," by Ralph Raico]

Debate:Should politicians be allowed to misspeak?

2008-10-02T01:50:51Z

Adel:

George H. W. Bush got the date of Pearl Harbor wrong. Obama accidentally said he'd been to 57, rather than 45, states. Dan Quayle said he wished he spoke Latin (rather than Spanish) when visiting Latin America. Our current president has made his share of gaffes. Should we cut them a little slack, or hold them to a higher standard when it comes to speaking errors? [[User:CraigC|CraigC]] 23:38, 9 September 2008 (EDT)

==Yes==

Absolutely. People make slips like these all the time, and reasonable listeners know how to distinguish a simple slip from deliberate deceit. Slips and gaffes are practically inevitable in campaigns, with the long days, hectic schedules and minimal time for rest. What counts, then is the ability of readers/listeners to digest and interpret what's said fairly, and decide if it's a slip or something else. McCain has referred to the Czek Republic as Czekoslovakia a couple of times, and I'd write those off as slips. However, when he and Palin continue to insist that she was the entity behind the cancellation of Gravina Bridge project, despite the clear evidence to the contrary, that's not a slip anymore. That's plain and simple [[deceit]]. --[[User:DinsdaleP|DinsdaleP]] 00:47, 10 September 2008 (EDT)

==No==

Al-Jazeera

2008-10-02T01:40:44Z

Adel:

[[Image:AJILogo.jpg|right]]
'''Al-Jazeera''' (Literally ''The Peninsula'', [[Arab]]ic: الجزيرة) is a [[satellite]] [[television]] broadcast network based in the Emirate of [[Qatar]]. It offers broadcasts and Web content in Arabic and in [[English]].

==History==
Al-Jazeera began ca. 1995 when the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] ceased their operations in Qatar and left their equipment behind. The Emir of Qatar formed an independent satellite broadcasting company, turned the equipment over to its officers, and pledged never to interfere with the new company's corporate or editorial management staff, nor dictate what news was or was not fit to broadcast.

Since then, Al-Jazeera has developed markets throughout the Arab world, including the nomadic tribes who can easily carry the kind of equipment required to receive Al-Jazeera's satellite signal.

==Current controversy==
Al-Jazeera has been accused of expressing open sympathy with those who interpret the [[Islam|Muslim]] concept of [[jihad]] to stand for a physical holy war against anyone and anything non-Muslim. More particularly they have been accused of fomenting extremism among Arab youth and willfully distorting its reporting of terrorist incidents, riots, etc.

That their logo consists of the reworking of the Arabic word ''Al-Jazeera'' (the peninsula) into a stylized drawing of a flame, might or might not be significant.

==External Link==
*[http://english.aljazeera.net/English English-language site for Al-Jazeera]

[[Category:Media]]

Qatar

2008-10-01T23:54:27Z

Adel:

{{Country
|name =''دولة قطر<br/>Dawlat Qatar''
|map =Qatar rel95.jpg
|flag =Flag of Qatar.png
|arms =Arms of Qatar.png
|capital =Doha
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =Hamad bin Khalifa (emir)
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Hamad ibn Jaber Al Thani
|pm-raw =
|area =4,416 sq mi
|pop =841,000 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$25.01 billion
|gdp-year =2005
|gdp-pc =$49,655
|currency =Riyal
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''State of Qatar''' is an [[emirate]] on a [[peninsula]] on the west coast of the [[Persian Gulf]], with a population of over 900,000, although one quarter of that population are foreign workers and their family. The official language is [[Arabic]] and the capital is [[Doha]]. [[English]] is a commonly used second language.

==Government and Political Conditions==
The ruling Al Thani family continued to hold power following the declaration of independence in 1971. The head of state is the Amir, and the right to rule Qatar is passed on within the Al Thani family. Politically, Qatar is evolving from a traditional society to one based on more formal and democratic institutions to meet the requirements of social and economic progress. The country's constitution formalizes the hereditary rule of the Al Thani family, but it also establishes an elected legislative body and makes government ministers accountable to the legislature. In current practice, the Amir's role is influenced by continuing traditions of consultation, rule by consensus, and the citizen's right to appeal personally to the Amir. The Amir, while directly accountable to no one, cannot violate the Shari'a (Islamic law) and, in practice, must consider the opinions of leading families and the religious establishment.

The opinions of the people are institutionalized in the Advisory Council, an appointed body that assists the Amir in formulating policy. However, it is possible that the first elections for this body will occur in 2008. Elections in 1999, in which both men and women participated, resulted in the formation of a municipal council. One woman candidate was elected to the municipal council in 2003. Municipal elections were held for the third time in April 2007.

There has been no serious challenge to Al Thani rule. As the most visible sign of the move toward openness, the Al Jazeera satellite television station based in Qatar is considered the most free and unfettered broadcast source in the Arab world. In practice, however, Al Jazeera rarely criticizes the ruling Al Thani family.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Amir, Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, and Minister of Defense--HH Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Heir Apparent, Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces--HH Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs--HE Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jabir Al Thani
*Minister of Energy and Industry and Deputy Prime Minister--Abdullah al-Attiyah
*Ambassador to the U.S.--vacant

==Foreign Relations==
Qatar achieved full independence in an atmosphere of cooperation with the U.K. and friendship with neighboring states. Most Arab states, the U.K., and the U.S. were among the first countries to recognize Qatar, and the state promptly gained admittance to the United Nations and the Arab League. Qatar established diplomatic relations with the U.S.S.R. and China in 1988. It was an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the GCC.

In September 1992, tensions arose with Saudi Arabia when Saudi forces allegedly attacked a Qatari border post, resulting in two deaths. Relations have since improved, and a joint commission has been set up to demarcate the border as agreed between the two governments. Most, but not all, of the border issues have been resolved.

For years, both Qatar and Bahrain claimed ownership of the Hawar Islands. The case was eventually referred to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague. The ICJ issued a ruling in June 2001, which both sides accepted. In the agreement Bahrain kept the main Hawar Island but dropped claims to parts of mainland Qatar, while Qatar retained significant maritime areas and their resources.

Qatar is well known for being a mediator in the region. The government has brokered peace between Sunni radicals and the Yemeni government,<ref>http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2008/02/2008525134531779340.html</ref> and has also negotiated a peace deal in Lebanon averting a potential civil war.<ref>http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2008/02/2008525134531779340.html</ref> Much of their political capital has been earned through various humanitarian donations. The Qatari government provided $300 million dollars to help rebuild Lebanon after their war with Israel.<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,212521,00.html</ref> Additionally, after many Western nations cut off aid to Palestine in response to the election of Hamas, Qatar promised $50 million to help maintain the welfare of the state. While the United States has not supported every action taken by the Qatari government, the nation remains an indispensable asset on the road to peace in the Middle East. In response to questions regarding Qatar's positive relationships with both Western and Middle Eastern nations, Prime Minister Al Thani responded "Our ambition is to have prosperity for our people, we would like to be friendly with everyone."<ref>http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/03/04/america/letter5.php?page=2</ref>

==People==
Natives of the Arabian Peninsula, many Qataris are descended from a number of migratory tribes that came to Qatar in the 18th century from the neighboring areas of Nejd and Al-Hasa. Some came from neighboring Gulf emirates and others are descended from Persian merchants. Most of Qatar's 907,229 inhabitants live in Doha, the capital. Foreigners with temporary residence status make up about three-fourths of the population. Foreign workers comprise 52% of the total population and make up about 89% of the total labor force. Most are South and Southeast Asians, Egyptians, Palestinians, Jordanians, and Iranians. About 8,000 U.S. citizens reside in Qatar.

For centuries, the main sources of wealth were pearling, fishing, and trade. At one time, Qataris owned nearly one-third of the Persian Gulf fishing fleet. With the Great Depression and the introduction of Japan's cultured-pearl industry, pearling in Qatar declined drastically.

The Qataris are mainly Sunni Muslims. Islam is the official religion, and Islamic jurisprudence is the basis of Qatar's legal system, although civil courts have jurisdiction over commercial law. Arabic is the official language, and English is widely spoken. Education is compulsory and free for all Arab residents 6-16 years old. Qatar has an increasingly high literacy rate.

==Defense==
Qatar's defense expenditures are estimated to be in the range of 10% of GDP. Qatar maintains a modest military force of about 12,000 men, including an army, navy, and air force. The country has a public security force of about 8,000 men, including a coast guard, national firefighting force, air wing, marine police, and an internal security force. Qatar also has signed defense pacts with the U.S., U.K., and France. Qatar plays an active role in the collective defense efforts of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC--the regional organization of the Arab states in the Gulf; the other five members are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the U.A.E., and Oman). Qatari forces played an important role in the first Gulf War, and Qatar has supported U.S. military operations critical to the success of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Al Udeid, one of America's largest Air Force bases, remains a critical asset to operations in both Iraq and Afghanistan.<ref>http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE3DA133DF93BA15757C0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1</ref> Qatar hosts CENTCOM Forward Headquarters.

==Economy==
Oil formed the cornerstone of Qatar's economy well into the 1990s and still accounts for about 62% of total government revenue. In 1973, oil production and revenues increased sizably, moving Qatar out of the rank of the world's poorest countries and providing it with one of the highest per capita incomes. In 2006, Qatar's per capita income of nearly $62,000 was the fifth-highest in the world.

Qatar's economy suffered a downturn from in the mid-1990s. Lower Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) oil production quotas, a fall in oil prices, and the generally unpromising outlook on international markets reduced oil earnings. In turn, the Qatari Government cut spending plans to match lower income. The resulting recessionary local business climate caused many firms to lay off expatriate staff. With the economy recovering in the late 1990s, expatriate populations have grown again.

Oil production is currently around 835,000 barrels a day (bpd), and is expected to reach 1.1 million bpd by 2009. At the current production pace, oil reserves are expected to last more than 40 years. Moreover, Qatar's proven reserves of gas are the third-largest in the world, exceeding 900 trillion cubic feet (14% of the world's total proven gas reserves). Qatar shares with Iran the largest single non-associated gas field in the world, the North Field. Qatar is now the world's largest producer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), with a capacity of more than 31 million metric tons per annum (mmta), and it expects to reach 77.5 mmta of LNG exports by 2010. By 2010, Qatar will account for one-third of the world's LNG supply.

The 1991 completion of the $1.5-billion Phase I of the North Field gas development project strongly boosted the economy. In 1996, Qatar began exporting liquefied natural gas to Japan. Further phases of North Field gas development costing billions of dollars are in various stages of planning and development, and Qatar has concluded agreements with the U.A.E. to export gas via pipelines and to Spain, Turkey, Italy, the U.S., France, South Korea, India, China, Taiwan, and the U.K. via ship. However, the government has halted any further expansion of gas production until 2010, as it assesses its plans for future exploitation of the field.

Qatar's natural gas liquefaction facilities and related industries are located in Ras Laffan Industrial City, site of the world's largest LNG exports of more than 31 million metric tons per year. Qatar's heavy industrial base, located in Messaieed, includes a refinery with a 140,000 bpd capacity, a fertilizer plant for urea and ammonia, a steel plant, and a petrochemical plant, and several new petrochemical plants will be built in the coming years. All these industries use gas for fuel. Most are joint ventures between U.S., European, and Japanese firms and the state-owned Qatar Petroleum (QP). The U.S. is the major equipment supplier for Qatar's oil and gas industry, and U.S. companies are playing a major role in the development of the oil and gas sector and petrochemicals.

The country's economic growth has been stunning. Qatar's nominal GDP, currently around $52.7 billion, has grown an average of 15% over the past five years. GDP is expected to grow approximately 8.3% in 2007. Qatar's per capita GDP is more than $60,000, and projected to soon be the highest in the world. The Qatari Government's strategy is to utilize its wealth to generate more wealth by diversifying the economic base of the country beyond hydrocarbons.

Qatar pursues a vigorous program of "Qatarization," under which all joint venture industries and government departments strive to move Qatari nationals into positions of greater authority. Growing numbers of foreign-educated Qataris, including many educated in the U.S., are returning home to assume key positions formerly occupied by expatriates. In order to control the influx of expatriate workers, Qatar has tightened the administration of its foreign manpower programs over the past several years. Security is the principal basis for Qatar's strict entry and immigration rules and regulations.

==History==
Qatar has been inhabited for millennia. The Al Khalifa family of Bahrain dominated the area until 1868 when, at the request of Qatari nobles, the British negotiated the termination of the Bahraini claim, except for the payment of tribute. The tribute ended when the Ottoman Empire occupied Qatar in 1872.

When the Ottomans left at the beginning of World War I, the British recognized Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani as ruler. The Al Thani family had lived in Qatar for 200 years. The 1916 treaty between the United Kingdom and Sheikh Abdullah was similar to those entered into by the British with other Gulf principalities. Under it, the ruler agreed not to dispose of any of his territory except to the U.K. and not to enter into relationships with any other foreign government without British consent. In return, the British promised to protect Qatar from all aggression by sea and to lend their good offices in case of a land attack. A 1934 treaty granted more extensive British protection.

In 1935, a 75-year oil concession was granted to the Qatar Petroleum Company, a subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Company, which was owned by Anglo-Dutch, French, and U.S. interests. High-quality oil was discovered in 1940 at Dukhan, on the western side of the Qatari peninsula. However, the start of WWII delayed exploitation of Qatar's oil resources, and oil exports did not begin until 1949.

During the 1950s and 1960s gradually increasing oil revenues brought prosperity, rapid immigration, substantial social progress, and the beginnings of Qatar's modern history. When the U.K. announced a policy in 1968 (reaffirmed in March 1971) of ending the treaty relationships with the Gulf sheikdoms, Qatar joined the other eight states then under British protection (the seven trucial sheikdoms--the present United Arab Emirates--and Bahrain) in a plan to form a union of Arab emirates. By mid-1971, as the termination date of the British treaty relationship (end of 1971) approached, the nine still had not agreed on terms of union. Accordingly, Qatar declared independence as a separate entity and became the fully independent State of Qatar on September 3, 1971.

In February 1972, the Heir Apparent, Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad, deposed his cousin, Amir Ahmad, and assumed power. Key members of the Al Thani family supported this move, which took place without violence or signs of political unrest.

On June 27, 1995, the Deputy Amir, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, deposed his father Amir Khalifa in a bloodless coup. An unsuccessful counter-coup was staged in 1996. The Amir and his father are now reconciled, though some supporters of the counter-coup remain in prison. The Amir announced his intention for Qatar to move toward democracy and has permitted a freer and more open press and municipal elections as a precursor to expected parliamentary elections. Qatari citizens approved a new constitution via public referendum in April 2003, which came into force in June 2005.

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5437.htm]}}
==References==
<references/>

[[category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Afghanistan

2008-09-30T21:22:20Z

Adel:

{{country
|map=Afghanistan rel 2003.jpg
|flag=Flag of Afghanistan.jpg
|capital=Kabul
|pop=28,500,000
|pop-basis=2004 estimate
|gdp=$20 Billion
|gdp-year=2003
|president=Hamid Karzai
}}
'''Afghanistan''' (افغانستان) is a landlocked country in southern [[Asia]] which borders [[Pakistan]] to the south and east and [[Iran]] to the west. Afghanistan is known in the modern world for the decade-long influence of the [[Islamism|Islamic]] [[Taliban]] government, which was overthrown by American-led forces in the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks, but still retains strong influence and is currently conducting a campaign of guerrilla warfare. One in three Afghanis believe that the Taliban would return if foreign troops pulled out before the army and police were better trained: 85 per cent believe the government should negotiate with the Taliban to reduce conflict, and 72 per cent believe a coalition government with the Taliban would be acceptable.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/afghanistan/afghan-survey2007.html Environics 2007 Poll of Afghanistan]</ref>

==People==
Afghanistan's ethnically and linguistically mixed population reflects its location astride historic trade and invasion routes leading from Central Asia into South and Southwest Asia. While population data is somewhat unreliable for Afghanistan, Pashtuns make up the largest ethnic group at 38-44% of the population, followed by Tajiks (25%), Hazaras (10%), Uzbek (6-8%), Aimaq, Turkmen, Baluch, and other small groups. Dari (Afghan Farsi) and Pashto are official languages. Dari is spoken by more than one-third of the population as a first language and serves as a lingua franca for most Afghans, though Pashto is spoken throughout the Pashtun areas of eastern and southern Afghanistan. Tajik and Turkic languages are spoken widely in the north. Smaller groups throughout the country also speak more than 70 other languages and numerous dialects.

Afghanistan is an Islamic country. An estimated 80% of the population is Sunni, following the Hanafi school of jurisprudence; the remainder of the population--and primarily the Hazara ethnic group -- predominantly Shi'a. Despite attempts during the years of communist rule to secularize Afghan society, Islamic practices pervade all aspects of life. In fact, Islam served as a principal basis for expressing opposition to communism and the Soviet invasion. Islamic religious tradition and codes, together with traditional tribal and ethnic practices, have an important role in personal conduct and dispute settlement. Afghan society is largely based on kinship groups, which follow traditional customs and religious practices, though somewhat less so in urban areas.

==Government and Political Conditions==
On October 9, 2004, Afghanistan held its first national democratic presidential election. More than 8 million Afghans voted, 41% of whom were women. Hamid Karzai was announced as the official winner on November 3 and inaugurated on December 7 for a five-year term as Afghanistan's first democratically elected president. On December 23, 2004, President Karzai announced new cabinet appointments, naming three women as ministers.

An election was held on September 18, 2005 for the “Wolesi Jirga” (lower house) of Afghanistan's new bicameral National Assembly and for the country's 34 provincial councils. Turnout for the election was about 53% of the 12.5 million registered voters. The Afghan constitution provides for indirect election of the National Assembly's “Meshrano Jirga” (upper house) by the provincial councils and by reserved presidential appointments. The first democratically elected National Assembly since 1969 was inaugurated on December 19, 2005. Younus Qanooni and Sigbatullah Mojadeddi were elected Speaker of the Wolesi Jirga and Meshrano Jirga, respectively.

The government's authority is growing, although its ability to deliver necessary social services remains largely dependent on funds from the international donor community. Between 2001-2006, the United States committed over $12 billion to the reconstruction of Afghanistan. At an international donors' conference in Berlin in April 2004, donors pledged a total of $8.2 billion for Afghan reconstruction over the three-year period 2004-2007. At the end of January 2006, the international community gathered in London and renewed its political and reconstruction support for Afghanistan in the form of the Afghanistan Compact.

With international community support, including more than 40 countries participating in Operation Enduring Freedom and NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), the government's capacity to secure Afghanistan's borders to maintain internal order is increasing. Responsibility for security for all of Afghanistan was transferred to ISAF in October 2006. As of November 2006, some 40,000 Afghan National Army (ANA) soldiers had been trained along with some 60,000 police, including border and highway police.

Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) has also helped to further establish the authority of the Afghan central government. The DDR program, after receiving 63,000 military personnel, stopped accepting additional candidates in June 2005. Disarmament and demobilization of all of these candidates were completed at the end of June 2006. A follow-on program targeting illegal militias, the Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups (DIAG), was begun in 2005, under the joint auspices of Japan and the United Nations. The DIAG program is still ongoing.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--Hamid Karzai
*First Vice President--Ahmad Zia Masood
*Second Vice President--Abdul Karim Khalili
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Dr. Rangin Dadfar Spanta
*Minister of Defense--General Abdul Raheem Wardak
*Minister of Interior--Zarar Ahmad Muqbal
*Ambassador to the United States--Said Tayib Jawad

===Foreign Relations===
Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations. After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. Most Western countries, including the United States, maintained small diplomatic missions in Kabul during the Soviet occupation. Repeated Taliban efforts to occupy Afghanistan's seat at the UN and Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) were unsuccessful.

The fall of the Taliban in October 2001 opened a new chapter in Afghanistan's foreign relations. Afghanistan is now an active member of the international community, and has diplomatic relations with countries from around the world. In December 2002, the six nations that border Afghanistan signed a ‘Good Neighbor' Declaration, in which they pledged to respect Afghanistan's independence and territorial integrity. In 2005 Afghanistan and its South Asia neighbors held the first annual Regional Economic Cooperation Conference (RECC) promoting intra-regional relations and economic cooperation.

====Pakistan====
The 1978 Marxist coup strained relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference in opposing the Soviet occupation. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Pakistan served as the primary logistical conduit for the Afghan resistance. Pakistan initially developed close ties to the Taliban regime, and extended recognition in 1997. Pakistan dramatically altered its policy after September 11, 2001 by closing its border and downgrading its ties. Afghanistan and Pakistan are engaged in dialogue to resolve these bilateral issues.

====Iran====
Afghanistan's relations with Iran have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention. Following the Soviet invasion, which Iran opposed, relations deteriorated. Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and provided financial and military assistance to rebel leaders who pledged loyalty to the Iranian vision of Islamic revolution. Iran still provides refuge to Afghan ex-patriots. Following the emergence of the Taliban and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Shi'a minority, Iran stepped up assistance to the Northern Alliance. Relations with the Taliban deteriorated further in 1998 after Taliban forces seized the Iranian consulate in Mazar-e-Sharif and executed Iranian diplomats. Since the fall of the Taliban, Afghanistan's relations with Iran have improved. Iran has been active in Afghan reconstruction efforts, particularly in the western portion of the country.

====Russia====
During the reign of the Taliban, Russia became increasingly disenchanted over Taliban support for Chechen rebels and for providing a sanctuary for terrorist groups active in Central Asia and in Russia itself, and therefore provided military assistance to the Northern Alliance. Since the fall of the Taliban, the Karzai government has improved relations with Russia, but Afghanistan's outstanding foreign debt to Russia still continues to be a source of contention.

====Tajikistan====
Afghanistan's relations with Tajikistan have been complicated by political upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Also disenchanted by the Taliban's harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Tajik minority, Tajikistan facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. The Karzai government has sought to establish closer ties with its northern neighbor in order to capitalize on the potential economic benefits of increased trade.

====UN Efforts====
The United Nations was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet withdrawal under the terms of the 1988 Geneva Accords. In the aftermath of the Accords, the United Nations assisted in the repatriation of refugees and provided humanitarian aid such as food, health care, educational programs, and support for mine-clearing operations. From 1990-2001, the UN worked to promote a peaceful settlement between the Afghan factions as well as provide humanitarian aid. Since October 2001, the UN has played a key role in Afghanistan through the UN Assistance Mission to Afghanistan (UNAMA), including spearheading efforts to organize the Afghan presidential elections held in October 2004 and National Assembly elections held in 2005.

===Relations with the United States===
The first extensive American contact with Afghanistan was made by Josiah Harlan, an adventurer from Pennsylvania who was an adviser in Afghan politics in the 1830s and reputedly inspired Rudyard Kipling's story "The Man Who Would be King." After the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1934, the U.S. policy of helping developing nations raise their standard of living was an important factor in maintaining and improving U.S.-Afghan ties. From 1950 to 1979, U.S. foreign assistance provided Afghanistan with more than $500 million in loans, grants, and surplus agricultural commodities to develop transportation facilities, increase agricultural production, expand the educational system, stimulate industry, and improve government administration.

In the 1950s, the U.S. declined Afghanistan's request for defense cooperation but extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure--roads, dams, and power plants. Later, U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. The Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979.

After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated. In February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph "Spike" Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnapers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program. All remaining assistance agreements were ended after the December 1979 Soviet invasion.

Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need. This cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed to increase Afghan self-sufficiency and help Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about $3 billion in military and economic assistance to Afghans and the resistance movement.

The U.S. supports the emergence of a broad-based government, representative of all Afghans and actively encourages a UN role in the national reconciliation process in Afghanistan. Today, the U.S. is assisting the Afghan people as they rebuild their country and establish a representative government that contributes to regional stability, is market friendly, and respects human rights. In May 2005, President Bush and President Karzai concluded a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship.

==Economy==
In the 1930s, Afghanistan embarked on a modest economic development program. The government founded banks; introduced paper money; established a university; expanded primary, secondary, and technical schools; and sent students abroad for education.

Historically, there has been a dearth of information and reliable statistics about Afghanistan's economy. The 1979 Soviet invasion and ensuing civil war destroyed much of the country's limited infrastructure and disrupted normal patterns of economic activity. Gross domestic product had fallen substantially because of loss of labor and capital and disruption of trade and transport. Continuing internal strife hampered both domestic efforts at reconstruction as well as international aid efforts. However, Afghanistan's economy has grown at a fast pace since the 2001 fall of the Taliban, albeit from a low base. In 2004, Afghanistan's GDP grew 17%, and in 2005 Afghanistan's GDP grew approximately 10%.

In June 2006, Afghanistan and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility program for 2006-2009 that focuses on maintaining macroeconomic stability, boosting growth, and reducing poverty. Afghanistan is also rebuilding its banking infrastructure, through the Da Afghanistan National Bank. Several government-owned banks are also in the process of being privatized.

===Agriculture===
The main source of income in the country is agriculture, and during its good years, Afghanistan produces enough food and food products to provide for the people, as well as to create a surplus for export. The major food crops produced are: corn, rice, barley, wheat, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. In Afghanistan, industry is also based on agriculture, and pastoral raw materials. The major industrial crops are: cotton, tobacco, madder, castor beans, and sugar beets. The Afghan economy continues to be overwhelmingly agricultural, despite the fact that only 12% of its total land area is arable and less than 6% currently is cultivated. Agricultural production is constrained by an almost total dependence on erratic winter snows and spring rains for water; irrigation is primitive. Relatively little use is made of machines, chemical fertilizer, or pesticides.

Overall agricultural production dramatically declined following severe drought as well as sustained fighting, instability in rural areas, and deteriorated infrastructure. The easing of the drought and the end of civil war produced the largest wheat harvest in 25 years during 2003. Wheat production was an estimated 58% higher than in 2002. However, the country still needed to import an estimated one million tons of wheat to meet its requirements for the 2003 year. Millions of Afghans, particularly in rural areas, remained dependent on food aid.

Opium has become a source of cash for many Afghans, especially following the breakdown in central authority after the Soviet withdrawal, and opium-derived revenues probably constituted a major source of income for the two main factions during the civil war in the 1990s. Opium is easy to cultivate and transport and offers a quick source of income for impoverished Afghans. Afghanistan produced a record opium poppy crop in 2006, supplying 91% of the world's opium. Much of Afghanistan's opium production is refined into heroin and is either consumed by a growing regional addict population or exported, primarily to Western Europe.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5308180.stm</ref>

Afghanistan has begun counter-narcotics programs, including the promotion of alternative livelihoods, public information campaigns, targeted eradication policies, interdiction of drug shipments, as well as law enforcement and justice reform programs. These programs were first implemented in late 2005. In June 2006, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that the Afghan Government eradicated over 15,000 hectares of opium poppy.

===Trade and Industry===
Afghanistan is endowed with natural resources, including extensive deposits of natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, and precious and semiprecious stones. Unfortunately, ongoing instability in certain areas of the country, remote and rugged terrain, and inadequate infrastructure and transportation network have made mining these resources difficult, and there have been few serious attempts to further explore or exploit them.

The most important resource has been natural gas, first tapped in 1967. At their peak during the 1980s, natural gas sales accounted for $300 million a year in export revenues (56% of the total). Ninety percent of these exports went to the Soviet Union to pay for imports and debts. However, during the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, Afghanistan's natural gas fields were capped to prevent sabotage by the mujahidin. Restoration of gas production has been hampered by internal strife and the disruption of traditional trading relationships following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Trade in smuggled goods into Pakistan once constituted a major source of revenue for Afghan regimes, including the Taliban, and still figures as an important element in the Afghan economy, although efforts are underway to formalize this trade.

===Transportation===
In the 1960s, the United States helped build a highway connecting Afghanistan's two largest cities. It began in Kabul and wound its way through five of the country's core provinces—skirting scores of isolated and otherwise inaccessible villages; passing through the ancient market city of Ghazni; descending through Qalat; and eventually reaching Kandahar, founded by Alexander the Great. More than 35% of the country's population lives within 50 kilometers of this highway, called, appropriately, modern Afghanistan's lifeline. In 1978, the Soviet Union invaded. By the time its forces withdrew more than a decade later, more than 1 million Afghans had been killed and 5 million had fled. Civil war followed. The Taliban emerged, controlling all but the remote, northern regions. Afghanistan was terrorized by this group, which was dogmatically opposed to progress and democracy. More than two decades of war had left the Kabul-Kandahar highway devastated, like much of the country's infrastructure. Little could move along the lifeline that had provided so many Afghans with their means of livelihood and their access to healthcare, education, markets, and places of worship.

'''Reviving the Road''': Restoration of the highway has been an overriding priority of President Hamid Karzai. It is crucial to extending the influence of the new government. Without the highway link, Afghanistan's civil society and economy would remain moribund and prey to divisive forces. The economic development that the highway makes possible will help guarantee the unity and long-term security of the Afghan people. The restored highway is a visually impressive achievement whose symbolic importance should not be underestimated. It marks a palpable transition from the recent past and represents an important building block for the future. Recently, an official in Herat likened the ring road to veins and arteries that nourish and bring life to the "heart" of Kabul and the body of the country. The highway will not end in Kandahar: there are plans to complete the circuit, extending it to Herat and then arcing it back through Mazar-e Sharif to Kabul. The route is sometimes referred to as the Ring Road. As of December 2006, three-quarters of the Ring Road had been funded, with plans to be completed in 2007.

Landlocked Afghanistan has no functioning railways, but the Amu Darya (Oxus) River, which forms part of Afghanistan's border with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, has barge traffic. During their occupation of the country, the Soviets completed a bridge across the Amu Darya. The United States, in partnership with Norway, has agreed to reconstruct this bridge, which will stretch more than 650 meters over the Amu Darya/Pyandzh River between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, near Pyanji Poyon (Tajikistan) and Shir Khan Bandar (Afghanistan). The bridge is set for completion in 2007.

Afghanistan's national airline, Ariana, operates domestic and international routes, including flights to New Delhi, Islamabad, Dubai, Moscow, Istanbul, Tehran, and Frankfurt. A private carrier, Kam Air, commenced domestic operations in November 2003. Many sections of Afghanistan's highway and regional road system are undergoing significant reconstruction. The U.S. (with assistance from Japan) completed building a highway linking Kabul to the southern regional capital, Kandahar. Construction is soon to begin on the next phase of highway reconstruction between Kandahar and the western city of Herat. The Asian Development Bank is also active in road development projects, mainly in the border areas with Pakistan.

==Humanitarian Relief==
Many nations have assisted in a great variety of humanitarian and development projects all across Afghanistan since the fall of the Taliban in 2001. The United Nations, World Bank, Asian Development Bank and other international agencies have also given aid. Schools, clinics, water systems, agriculture, sanitation, government buildings and roads are being repaired or built.

===De-mining===
Afghanistan is one of the most heavily mined countries in the world; mine-related injuries number up to 100 per month, and an estimated 200,000 Afghans have been disabled by landmine/unexploded ordinances (UXO) accidents. As of March 2005 the United Nations Mine Action Program for Afghanistan had approximately 8,000 Afghan personnel, 700 demobilized soldiers, 22 international staff, and several NGOs deployed in Afghanistan. The goal of the program is to remove the impact of mines from all high-impact areas by 2007 and to make Afghanistan mine-free by 2012. Between January 2003 and March 2005 a total of 2,354,244 mines and pieces of UXOs were destroyed. Training programs are also being used to educate the public about the threat and dangers of land mines. The number of mine victims was reduced from approximately 150 a month in 2002 to less than 100 a month in 2004.

===Refugees and Internally Displaced People===
Afghanistan has had the largest refugee repatriation in the world in the last 30 years. The return of refugees is guided by the Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MORR) and supported by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), International Organization of Migration (IOM), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Program (WFP), the World Health Organization (WHO) and a number of other national and international NGOs. As of December 2006, approximately 3 million Afghans remained in neighboring countries. The U.S. provided more than $350 million to support Afghan refugees, returnees, and other conflict victims between September 2001 and March 2006. Since the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, the country's non-opium economy has grown significantly and has allowed approximately 3 million people to return home.<ref>http://www.control-risks.com/default.aspx?page=605</ref>

===Health===
In response to a strategy outlined by the Ministry of Health, the international community is supporting the government in rebuilding the primary health-care system. Tuberculosis remains a serious public health problem in Afghanistan. Since this strategy was outlined, the Afghan Government with support from the World Health Organization (WHO) has established 162 health facilities in 141 districts across the country. The treatment success rate in 2002 was 86%. WHO is also assisting the Ministry of Health and local health authorities to combat malaria where the disease is widespread. Through this project, 600,000 individuals are receiving full treatment for malaria every year. In addition 750,000 individuals are protected from malaria by sleeping under special nets provided under the project.

===Education===
There were 45,000 children enrolled in school in 1993, 19% were girls. The latest official statistics show there are now 64,000 children in school, one third are girls. In addition 29% of the teachers in the province are women, compared with 15% in 1993. Effort is being made to ensure that teachers receive salaries on time and increasing the attendance of girls in school. The total enrollment rate for Afghan children between 7 and 13 years of age has increased to 54% (67% for boys and 37% for girls). A number of factors such as distance to schools, poor facilities and lack of separate schooling for boys and girls continue to be challenges to higher enrollment.

==History==
Afghanistan, often called the crossroads of Central Asia, has had a turbulent history. In 328 BC, Alexander the Great entered the territory of present-day Afghanistan, then part of the Persian Empire, to capture Bactria (present-day Balkh). Invasions by the Scythians, White Huns, and Turks followed in succeeding centuries. In AD 642, Arabs invaded the entire region and introduced Islam.

Arab rule gave way to the Persians, who controlled the area until conquered by the Turkic Ghaznavids in 998. Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and turned Ghazni into a great cultural center as well as a base for frequent forays into India. Following Mahmud's short-lived dynasty, various princes attempted to rule sections of the country until the destructive Mongol invasion of 1219 led by Genghis Khan.

Following Genghis Khan's death in 1227, a succession of petty chiefs and princes struggled for supremacy until late in the 14th century, when one of his descendants, Tamerlane, incorporated Afghanistan into his own vast Asian empire. Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and the founder of India's Moghul dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century, made Kabul the capital of an Afghan principality.

In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of what is known today as Afghanistan, established his rule. A Pashtun, Durrani was elected king by a tribal council after the assassination of the Persian ruler Nadir Shah at Khabushan in the same year. Throughout his reign, Durrani consolidated chieftainships, petty principalities, and fragmented provinces into one country. His rule extended from Mashad in the west to Kashmir and Delhi in the east, and from the Amu Darya (Oxus) River in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south.

===European Influence===
During the 19th century, collision between the expanding British Empire in the subcontinent and czarist Russia significantly influenced Afghanistan in what was termed "The Great Game." British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and growing influence in Persia culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars. The first (1839-42) resulted not only in the destruction of a British army, but is remembered today as an example of the ferocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule. The second Anglo-Afghan war (1878-80) was sparked by Amir Sher Ali's refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul. This conflict brought Amir Abdur Rahman to the Afghan throne. During his reign (1880-1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan through the demarcation of the Durand Line. The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs.

Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I, despite German encouragement of anti-British feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of British India. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, however.

Habibullah, Abdur Rahman's son and successor, was assassinated in 1919, possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son, Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the third Anglo-Afghan war with an attack on India in the same year. During the ensuing conflict, the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919. In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 19 as their Independence Day.

===Reform and Reaction===
King Amanullah (1919-29) moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Europe and Turkey--during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by Ataturk--introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. Some of these, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to forces led by Bacha-i-Saqao, a Tajik brigand. Prince Nadir Khan, a cousin of Amanullah's, in turn defeated Bacha-i-Saqao in October of the same year and, with considerable Pashtun tribal support, was declared King Nadir Shah. Four years later, however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a Kabul student.

Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a two-chamber legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) faction headed by Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin and supported by elements within the military, and the Parcham (Banner) faction led by Babrak Karmal. The split reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society.

Zahir's cousin, Sardar Mohammad Daoud, served as his Prime Minister from 1953 to 1963. During his tenure as Prime Minister, Daoud solicited military and economic assistance from both Washington and Moscow and introduced controversial social policies of a reformist nature. Daoud's alleged support for the creation of a Pashtun state in the Pakistan-Afghan border area heightened tensions with Pakistan and eventually resulted in Daoud's dismissal in March 1963.

Daoud's Republic (1973-78) and the April 1978 Coup
Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971-72 drought, former Prime Minister Daoud seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Zahir Shah fled the country, eventually finding refuge in Italy. Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability.

Seeking to exploit more effectively mounting popular disaffection, the PDPA reunified with Moscow's support. On April 27, 1978, the PDPA initiated a bloody coup, which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud and most of his family. Nur Muhammad Taraki, Secretary General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.

Opposition to the Marxist government emerged almost immediately. During its first 18 months of rule, the PDPA brutally imposed a Marxist-style "reform" program, which ran counter to deeply rooted Afghan traditions. Decrees forcing changes in marriage customs and pushing through an ill-conceived land reform were particularly misunderstood by virtually all Afghans. In addition, thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia were imprisoned, tortured, or murdered. Conflicts within the PDPA also surfaced early and resulted in exiles, purges, imprisonments, and executions.

By the summer of 1978, a revolt began in the Nuristan region of eastern Afghanistan and quickly spread into a countrywide insurgency. In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin, who had earlier been Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, seized power from Taraki after a palace shootout. Over the next 2 months, instability plagued Amin's regime as he moved against perceived enemies in the PDPA. By December, party morale was crumbling, and the insurgency was growing.

===The Soviet Invasion===
The Soviet Union moved quickly to take advantage of the April 1978 coup. In December 1978, Moscow signed a new bilateral treaty of friendship and cooperation with Afghanistan, and the Soviet military assistance program increased significantly. The regime's survival increasingly was dependent upon Soviet military equipment and advisers as the insurgency spread and the Afghan army began to collapse.

By October 1979, however, relations between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union were tense as Hafizullah Amin refused to take Soviet advice on how to stabilize and consolidate his government. Faced with a deteriorating security situation, on December 24, 1979, large numbers of Soviet airborne forces, joining thousands of Soviet troops already on the ground, began to land in Kabul under the pretext of a field exercise. On December 26, these invasion forces killed Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction, bringing him back from Czechoslovakia and making him Prime Minister. Massive Soviet ground forces invaded from the north on December 27.

Following the invasion, the Karmal regime, although backed by an expeditionary force that grew as large as 120,000 Soviet troops, was unable to establish authority outside Kabul. As much as 80% of the countryside, including parts of Herat and Kandahar, eluded effective government control. An overwhelming majority of Afghans opposed the communist regime, either actively or passively. Afghan freedom fighters (mujahidin) made it almost impossible for the regime to maintain a system of local government outside major urban centers. Poorly armed at first, in 1984 the mujahidin began receiving substantial assistance in the form of weapons and training from the U.S. and other outside powers.

In May 1985, the seven principal Peshawar-based guerrilla organizations formed an alliance to coordinate their political and military operations against the Soviet occupation. Late in 1985, the mujahidin were active in and around Kabul, launching rocket attacks and conducting operations against the communist government. The failure of the Soviet Union to win over a significant number of Afghan collaborators or to rebuild a viable Afghan army forced it to bear an increasing responsibility for fighting the resistance and for civilian administration.

Soviet and popular displeasure with the Karmal regime led to its demise in May 1986. Karmal was replaced by Muhammad Najibullah, former chief of the Afghan secret police (KHAD). Najibullah had established a reputation for brutal efficiency during his tenure as KHAD chief. As Prime Minister, Najibullah was ineffective and highly dependent on Soviet support. Undercut by deep-seated divisions within the PDPA, regime efforts to broaden its base of support proved futile.

===The Geneva Accords and Their Aftermath===
By the mid-1980s, the tenacious Afghan resistance movement--aided by the United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others--was exacting a high price from the Soviets, both militarily within Afghanistan and by souring the U.S.S.R.'s relations with much of the Western and Islamic world. Informal negotiations for a Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan had been underway since 1982. In 1988, the Governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan, with the United States and Soviet Union serving as guarantors, signed an agreement settling the major differences between them. The agreement, known as the Geneva accords, included five major documents, which, among other things, called for U.S. and Soviet noninterference in the internal affairs of Pakistan and Afghanistan, the right of refugees to return to Afghanistan without fear of persecution or harassment, and, most importantly, a timetable that ensured full Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan by February 15, 1989. About 14,500 Soviet and an estimated one million Afghan lives were lost between 1979 and the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.

Significantly, the mujahidin were party neither to the negotiations nor to the 1988 agreement and, consequently, refused to accept the terms of the accords. As a result, the civil war continued after the Soviet withdrawal, which was completed in February 1989. Najibullah's regime, though failing to win popular support, territory, or international recognition, was able to remain in power until 1992 but collapsed after the defection of Gen. Abdul Rashid Dostam and his Uzbek militia in March. However, when the victorious mujahidin entered Kabul to assume control over the city and the central government, a new round of internecine fighting began between the various militias, which had coexisted only uneasily during the Soviet occupation. With the demise of their common enemy, the militias' ethnic, clan, religious, and personality differences surfaced, and the civil war continued.

Seeking to resolve these differences, the leaders of the Peshawar-based mujahidin groups established an interim Islamic Jihad Council in mid-April 1992 to assume power in Kabul. Moderate leader Prof. Sibghatullah Mojaddedi was to chair the council for 2 months, after which a 10-member leadership council composed of mujahidin leaders and presided over by the head of the Jamiat-i-Islami, Prof. Burhanuddin Rabbani, was to be set up for 4 months. During this 6-month period, a Loya Jirga, or grand council of Afghan elders and notables, would convene and designate an interim administration which would hold power up to a year, pending elections.

But in May 1992, Rabbani prematurely formed the leadership council, undermining Mojaddedi's fragile authority. In June, Mojaddedi surrendered power to the Leadership Council, which then elected Rabbani as President. Nonetheless, heavy fighting broke out in August 1992 in Kabul between forces loyal to President Rabbani and rival factions, particularly those who supported Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami. After Rabbani extended his tenure in December 1992, fighting in the capital flared up in January and February 1993. The Islamabad Accord, signed in March 1993, which appointed Hekmatyar as Prime Minister, failed to have a lasting effect. A follow-up agreement, the Jalalabad Accord, called for the militias to be disarmed but was never fully implemented. Through 1993, Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami forces, allied with the Shi'a Hezb-i-Wahdat militia, clashed intermittently with Rabbani and Masood's Jamiat forces. Cooperating with Jamiat were militants of Sayyaf's Ittehad-i-Islami and, periodically, troops loyal to ethnic Uzbek strongman Abdul Rashid Dostam. On January 1, 1994, Dostam switched sides, precipitating large-scale fighting in Kabul and in northern provinces, which caused thousands of civilian casualties in Kabul and elsewhere and created a new wave of displaced persons and refugees. The country sank even further into anarchy, forces loyal to Rabbani and Masood, both ethnic Tajiks, controlled Kabul and much of the northeast, while local warlords exerted power over the rest of the country.

===The Taliban===
The Taliban had risen to power in the mid 90's in reaction to the anarchy and warlordism that arose after the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Many Taliban had been educated in madrassas in Pakistan and were largely from rural southern Pashtun backgrounds. In 1994, the Taliban developed enough strength to capture the city of Kandahar from a local warlord and proceeded to expand its control throughout Afghanistan, occupying Kabul in September 1996. By the end of 1998, the Taliban occupied about 90% of the country, limiting the opposition largely to a small mostly Tajik corner in the northeast and the Panjshir valley.

The Taliban sought to impose an extreme interpretation of Islam--based upon the rural Pashtun tribal code--on the entire country and committed massive human rights violations, particularly directed against women and girls. The Taliban also committed serious atrocities against minority populations, particularly the Shi'a Hazara ethnic group, and killed noncombatants in several well-documented instances. In 2001, as part of a drive against relics of Afghanistan's pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two Buddha statues carved into cliff faces outside of the city of Bamiyan.

From the mid-1990s the Taliban provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national who had fought with the mujahideen resistance against the Soviets, and provide a base for his and other terrorist organizations. Bin Laden provided both financial and political support to the Taliban. Bin Laden and his Al-Qaida group were charged with the bombing of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi and Dar Es Salaam in 1998, and in August 1998 the United States launched a cruise missile attack against bin Laden's terrorist camp in southeastern Afghanistan. Bin Laden and Al-Qaida have acknowledged their responsibility for the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States.

Following the Taliban's repeated refusal to expel bin Laden and his group and end its support for international terrorism, the U.S. and its partners in the anti-terrorist coalition began a military campaign on October 7, 2001, targeting terrorist facilities and various Taliban military and political assets within Afghanistan. Under pressure from U.S. military and anti-Taliban forces, the Taliban disintegrated rapidly, and Kabul fell on November 13, 2001.
[[Image:Afghanistan violence.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Journalist Jenny Hoff, 2007.]]
Afghan factions opposed to the Taliban met at a United Nations-sponsored conference in Bonn, Germany in December 2001 and agreed to restore stability and governance to Afghanistan--creating an interim government and establishing a process to move toward a permanent government. Under the "Bonn Agreement," an Afghan Interim Authority was formed and took office in Kabul on December 22, 2001 with Hamid Karzai as Chairman. The Interim Authority held power for approximately 6 months while preparing for a nationwide "Loya Jirga" (Grand Council) in mid-June 2002 that decided on the structure of a Transitional Authority. The Transitional Authority, headed by President Hamid Karzai, renamed the government as the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (TISA). One of the TISA's primary achievements was the drafting of a constitution that was ratified by a Constitutional Loya Jirga on January 4, 2004.

== References ==
<references/>

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm]}}

[[Category:Asian Countries]]
[[Category:Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Al Qaeda

2008-09-30T03:26:15Z

Adel:

[[Image:al_qaeda.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Osama bin Laden with Al-Qaeda members]]
'''Al-Qaeda''' ([[Arabic]]: القاعدة‎, Translation: ''the base'') is an international Islamist [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization founded in the late 1980s to fight the [[Red Army]] of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Afghanistan]], during the 1980-89 [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan]]. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, Osama bin Bin Ladin and his comrades had their own sources of support and training, and they received little or no assistance from the United States,<ref>9/11 Commission Report[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/sec2.pdf ''The Foundation of the New Terrorism''], pg. 56.</ref> which only provided funding to indigenous Afghan ''mujaheddin'', which al-Qaeda was not. It is currently led by [[Osama Bin Laden]] and is predominantly composed of fanatical [[Sunni]] [[Islam|Muslim]]s. [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], former leader of the [[Egypt]]ian terrorist group called the [[Islamic Brotherhood]], is second in command of the Al Qaeda. Zawahiri has increasingly become the spokesperson for the terrorist network.

Al Qaeda is responsible for the September 11, 2001 attack on the [[World Trade Center]] and [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]], the bombings of American embassies in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]] in 1998, the October 2000 bombing of the [[USS Cole]], and numerous smaller attacks. The group's wing in Iraq is believed to be responsible for many of the attacks and bombings there. The 9/11 Commission Report cites Bin laden meeting with Iraqi intelligence officials in Khatroum as early as 1995. Bin Laden declined reported Iraqi offers of a safe haven, instead settling in Afghanistan. Friendly contacts between Iraqis and Bin Laden continued, though there is no evidence of an operational relationship between the two sides.

"However difficult the fight in Iraq has become, we must win it," Mr. Bush said during a commencement speech at the U.S. Coast Guard Academy in New London, Conn. "Al Qaeda is public enemy No. 1 for Iraq's young democracy. Al Qaeda is public enemy No. 1 for America as well." <ref>http://www.washtimes.com/national/20070523-115137-6054r.htm</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Ramzan Kadyrov]]

==External Links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/world/2001/war_on_terror/default.stm BBC Profile of Al-Qaeda]
*[http://www.washtimes.com/national/20070523-115137-6054r.htm Bush shares al Qaeda plans] - Jon Ward, ''Washington Times'' - May 24, 2007
*[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,331512,00.html Al Qaeda in Northern Africa Has Become Pipeline for New Iraq Recruits], [[Reena Ninan]], ''[[Fox News Channel]]'', February 20, 2008
*[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,328832,00.html Al Qaeda Trains Young Boys as Terrorists, Tapes Show],
*[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,330810,00.html Purported Al Qaeda Video Shows Prisoners Burned Alive]

==References==
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[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Islam]]