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Texas

2016-11-29T04:25:29Z

ATexan:

{{USState
|name=Texas
|flag=Texas_State_Flag.gif
|motto="Friendship"
|nick=The Lone Star State
|capital=Austin
|language=English
|governor=Greg Abbott
|gparty=Republican
|senator2=John Cornyn
|s2party=Republican
|s2phone=(202) 224-2934
|s2email=http://cornyn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Contact.ContactForm Contact
|senator1=Ted Cruz
|s1party=Republican
|s1phone=(202) 224-5922
|s1email=http://hutchison.senate.gov/contact.cfm Contact
|population=
|date=December 29, 1845 (28th)
}}
'''Texas''', a territory of Mexico from 1821-1835 and the '''Republic of Texas''' from 1836–1845, became the 28th state to join the union on December 29, 1845—this state has the largest [[conservative]] state in population, and is predicted to surpass [[California]] in population within a few decades. Texas is the second largest in population after [[California]] and has the second largest land-area after [[Alaska]]. It has the largest land-area in the continental [[US]]. Before its admission, it was its own [[Republic of Texas|country]], having gained [[Texas War of Independence|independence]] from [[Mexico]].

The capital of Texas is [[Austin]], and the largest city is [[Houston]]. Texas was solidly [[Democrat]]ic from about 1900 to the 1970s, then [[Republican]]s gradually took control and now dominate the political atmosphere of the state. Nevertheless, the largest cities of Houston, [[San Antonio]], Austin, [[Dallas]], and El Paso are heavily Democrat. Houston in a non-partisan election chose a [[liberal]] Democrat as mayor on December 5, 2015.

Up until the 1980s Texas had a booming oil industry, starting with the Spindletop oil gusher. For many years Texas was one of the largest oil producers in the world, with the West of Texas oilfields famous around the globe.

Currently, Texas is shifting from the oil industry to the service sector. It has a growing tech industry and is home to many well-known corporations such as [[Dell]], [[Texas Instruments]] and [[Hewlett Packard]].

The current governor of Texas is Republican [[Greg Abbott]].

==History==
:{{main|History of Texas}}

Six national flags have flown over Texas. Spain, France (which had a small brief settlement), Mexico, the [[Republic of Texas]], the [[Confederate States of America]], and the [[United States of America]] have ruled Texas.<ref name="txonlinehandbook">http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online
</ref>

===Spain: 1519-1821===
Spain sent in several exploration teams, but they found no gold and gave negative reports that warned about the arid land and the hostile Indian tribes. Spanish settlers moved to [[New Mexico]] instead.

Spain opened a mission at San Antonio in 1718 along with several small missions and military outposts, primarily to keep France from expansing from its base in Louisiana. Spain began issuing permission for American settlement, but was replaced by Mexico in 1821.

===France: 1685-1690===
France was looking to expand its new colony in the Louisiana area, and French nobleman Robert de La Salle led an expedition looking for the mouth of the Mississippi river. However, he got lost and shipwrecked on the coast of Texas, and founded the colony Fort St. Louis in 1695. However, the colony was beset with many problems, including famine, disease, and attack from Native Americans. After five years, many of the inhabitants were dead, La Salle was murdered by his own crew, and the survivors had abandoned the colony.

===Mexico===
In January 1821, the Spanish authorities in Mexico City granted American [[Moses Austin]] permission to settle 300 families in Texas. After the death of Austin and after Mexico's successful revolt against Spain, the Mexican provisional government confirmed this concession to [[Stephen F. Austin]], the "Father of Texas." The younger Austin obtained contracts to settle 900 additional families, most of whom arrived by 1833. Austin's colonies formed the nucleus of the American settlements in Texas.

===Republic of Texas===
''March 2, 1836 - December 29, 1845''

[[Image:Texas1835.jpg|thumb|550px|Texas in 1835]]

Texas leaders gathered at [[Washington-on-the-Brazos]] to sign the Texas Declaration of Independence on March 2, 1836. Four days later the [[Alamo]] fell after a 13 day siege by Mexican troops led by [[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna]]. The massacre of all the defenders gave rise to the rallying call "Remember the Alamo". Santa Anna's Mexican troops were defeated on April 21 at the Battle of [[San Jacinto]] near present-day Houston. Mexico, however, refused to recognize the independence and when Texas joined the U.S. in 1845, the [[Mexican American War]] became inevitable.

Texas was a favorite destination of German immigrants in the 140s and 1850s. The state grew rapdily because of cattle herds and cotton farming; there were few cities.

===Confederate States of America===
Texas joined the Confederacy ''March 2, 1861-March 15, 1865''. The coast was blockaded, and after the fall of Vicksburg in 1863 it became almost impossible to send men, horses or cattle to the east. Texas became a backwater with little military action.

===United States of America===
''December 29, 1845-March 2, 1861 and March 15, 1865-present''.

Texas' [[Reconstruction]] experience was similar to other rebel states. Texas was hardly damaged by the war, and attracted a large number of immigrants from the deep South after 1865, while few Europeans arrived. Cotton and cattle continued as the dominant economic base, with [[Cattle Drives]] used to move the cattle to railheads in Kansas and Missouri before the railroads reached Texas.

==Politics==
Texas is a mostly conservative state. It has consistently voted [[Republican]] in presidential elections since 1980, last favoring the [[Democrats]] in 1976 when [[Jimmy Carter]] won the state. In 2012 Romney received 4.56 million votes, compared to Obama's 3.31 million.<ref>http://www.sos.state.tx.us/elections/historical/presidential.shtml</ref> As of 2016, the Texas Senate has 20 Republicans and 11 Democrats, and the State House consists of 99 Republicans, 50 Democrats, and one independent. Republicans also have a 25-11 edge in the federal House delegation.

Historically, Texas was a [[Democratic Party (USA)|Democratic Party]] stronghold.<ref name="TSHA">[https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/wap02 Political Parties - Handbook of Texas Online]. ''Texas State Historical Association''. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref> This was the case until the 1960s, and was especially the case in the early 20th Century.<ref name="TSHA"/> Due to the Dominance of the Democrats, the Democrat primaries were considered "the real election", during this time.<ref name="TSHA"/> In the party however, there were competing factions, and during the [[New Deal]], a conservative-liberal divide within the Democratic Party emerged.<ref name="TSHA"/> As the Democratic Party became more liberal (in a conservative state), and as different changes occurred in the state, conservative voters switched to the growing, conservative Republican Party,<ref>Sirois, Francis (November 8, 2016). [http://www.newschannel10.com/story/33661247/history-of-texas-voters History of Texas voters]. ''KFDA''. Retrieved November 9, 2016.</ref> until it took the Democrats place as the dominant party in Texas.<ref name="TSHA"/><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/architect/texas/realignment.html How Texas Became a "Red" State - Frontline]. ''PBS''. April 12, 2005. Retrieved August 16, 2016.</ref>

In the 2014 Texas elections, the [[Tea Party Movement]] made large gains, with numerous Tea Party favorites being elected into office, like [[Dan Patrick]] as lieutenant governor,<ref name="Holdssway">{{cite news | last1=Fernandez | first1=Manny | title=Lieutenant Governor Loses Texas Runoff as Tea Party Holds Sway | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/28/us/politics/tea-party-favorite-beats-lieutenant-governor-in-texas.html | date=May 27, 2014 | publisher=[[The New York Times]] | accessdate=April 2, 2015}}</ref><ref>Koppel, Nathan (January 21, 2015) - [http://www.wsj.com/articles/texas-lt-gov-dan-patrick-moves-quickly-to-advance-conservative-agenda-1421883867 "Texas Lt. Gov. Dan Patrick Moves Quickly to Advance Conservative Agenda"]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved April 2, 2015.</ref> [[Ken Paxton]] as attorney general,<ref name="Holdssway"/><ref name="Grissom">Grissom, Brandi. [http://www.texastribune.org/2014/05/28/tea-party-conservatives-win-top-gop-runoff-contest/ Tea Party Conservatives Win Top GOP Runoff Contests], ''[[Texas Tribune]]'', May 28, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2015.</ref> in addition to numerous other candidates<ref name="Grissom"/> including conservative Republican [[Greg Abbott]] as governor.<ref>Fernandez, Manny (January 20, 2015). [http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/21/us/politics/new-texas-governor-greg-abbott-expected-to-continue-on-perrys-path.html?_r=1 Texas’ New Governor Echoes the Plans of Perry]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved October 1, 2016.</ref>

===Several Texas Cities Rank Among the Most Conservative American Cities===
The most conservative Texas cities among the [[most conservative American cities]] are #2 [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], #3 Abilene, #5 [[Plano]], and #14 [[Arlington, Texas|Arlington]].<ref>[http://americancityandcounty.com/content/study-ranks-americas-most-liberal-and-conservative-cities 2005 study rankings on liberal and conservative cities]. Posted Oct 27, 2014. Accessed March 18, 2015</ref>

==Elected Officials==

===Federal===
*Sen. [[Ted Cruz]] (R)
*Sen. [[John Cornyn]] (R)
*Rep. [[Louie Gohmert]] [R, TX-01]
*Rep. [[Ted Poe]] [R, TX-02]
*Rep. [[Sam Johnson]] [R, TX-03]
*Rep. [[John Ratcliffe]] [R, TX-04]
*Rep. [[Jeb Hensarling]] [R, TX-05]
*Rep. [[Joe Barton]] [R, TX-06]
*Rep. [[John Culberson]] [R, TX-07]
*Rep. [[Kevin Brady]] [R, TX-08]
*Rep. [[Al Green]] [D, TX-09]
*Rep. [[Michael McCaul]] [R, TX-10]
*Rep. [[Mike Conaway]] [R, TX-11]
*Rep. [[Kay Granger]] [R, TX-12]
*Rep. [[Mac Thornberry]] [R, TX-13]
*Rep. [[Randy Weber]] [R, TX-14]
*Rep. [[Ruben Hinojosa]] [D, TX-15]
*Rep. [[Beto O'Rourke]] [D, TX-16]
*Rep. [[Bill Flores]] [R, TX-17]
*Rep. [[Sheila Jackson Lee]] [D, TX-18]
*Rep. [[Randy Neugebauer]] [R, TX-19]
*Rep. [[Joaquin Castro]] [D, TX-20]
*Rep. [[Lamar Smith]] [R, TX-21]
*Rep. [[Pete Olson]] [R, TX-22]
*Rep. [[Will Hurd]] [R, TX-23]
*Rep. [[Kenny Marchant]] [R, TX-24]
*Rep. [[Roger Williams (Texas)|Roger Williams]] [D, TX-25]
*Rep. [[Michael Burgess]] [R, TX-26]
*Rep. [[Blake Farenthold]] [R, TX-27]
*Rep. [[Henry Cuellar]] [D, TX-28]
*Rep. [[Gene Green]] [D, TX-29]
*Rep. [[Eddie Bernice Johnson]] [D, TX-30]
*Rep. [[John Carter]] [R, TX-31]
*Rep. [[Pete Sessions]] [R, TX-32]
*Rep. [[Marc Veasey]] [D, TX-33]
*Rep. [[Filemon Vela, Jr.]] [D, TX-34]
*Rep. [[Lloyd Doggett]] [D, TX-35]
*Rep. [[Brian Babin]] [R, TX-36]

===Statewide===
*Governor [[Greg Abbott]] (R)
*Lt. Governor [[Dan Patrick]] (R)
*Attorney General [[Ken Paxton]] (R)
*Agriculture Commissioner [[Sid Miller]] (R)
*Land Commissioner [[George P. Bush]] (R)
*State Comptroller [[Glenn Hegar]] (R)

==Energy==
[[File:Texas-oil.jpg|thumb|350px|right]][[File:Oil-symbol.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]

Texas leads the Nation in fossil fuel reserves and in non-hydropower renewable energy potential. Texas crude oil reserves represent almost one-fourth of total U.S. oil reserves, and Texas natural gas reserves account for almost three-tenths of total U.S. natural gas reserves. Although Texas’s oil reserves are found throughout the State in several geologic basins, the largest remaining reserves are concentrated in the Permian Basin of West Texas, which contains more than 20 of the Nation’s top 100 oil fields. Similarly, deposits of natural gas are found in abundance in several Texas production basins, with the largest fields heavily concentrated in the East Texas Basin in the northeastern part of the State. Texas’s fossil fuel reserves also include substantial deposits of lignite coal, found in narrow bands in the Gulf Coast region, and bituminous coal, found in north central and southwestern Texas.<ref>See [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=TX Energy Information Administration, State Report 2009]</ref>

Texas is also rich in renewable energy potential, including wind, solar, and biomass resources. Wind resource areas in the Texas Panhandle, along the Gulf Coast south of Galveston, and in the mountain passes and ridgetops of the Trans-Pecos offer Texas some of the greatest wind power potential in the United States. Solar power potential is also among the highest in the country, with high levels of direct solar radiation (suitable to support large-scale solar power plants) concentrated in West Texas. Due to its large agricultural and forestry sectors, Texas has an abundance of biomass energy resources. Although Texas is not known as a major hydropower State, substantial untapped potential exists in several river basins, including the Colorado River of Texas and the Lower Red.

Due to its large population and an energy-intensive economy, Texas leads the Nation in energy consumption, accounting for more than one-tenth of total U.S. energy use. Energy-intensive industries in Texas include aluminum, chemicals, forest products, glass, and petroleum refining.

===Petroleum===
The State’s signature crude oil type, known as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), remains the major benchmark of crude oil in the Americas.

Texas leads the United States in both crude oil production and refining capacity. Texas’s first major oil boom began in 1901 with the discovery of the Spindle Top oil field in the upper Gulf Coast basin. Since then, major discoveries have been made in East Texas, West Texas, and offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. Texas oil prod we have conservative suction increased until 1972, when it peaked at more than 3.4 million barrels per day. Afterward, production declined rapidly, and in recent years Texas crude oil output has fallen to less than one-third of its 1972 peak.

Although Texas oil production is in decline, the State’s signature crude oil type, known as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), remains the major benchmark of crude oil in the Americas. Because of its light consistency and low-sulfur content, the quality of WTI is considered to be high, and it yields a large fraction of gasoline when refined. Most WTI crude oil is sent via pipeline to Midwest refining centers, although much of this crude oil is also refined in the Gulf Coast region.

Texas’s 26 petroleum refineries can process nearly 4.8 million barrels of crude oil per day, and they account for more than one-fourth of total U.S. refining capacity. Most of the State’s refineries are clustered near major ports along the Gulf Coast, including Houston, Port Arthur, and Corpus Christi. These coastal refineries have access to local Texas production, foreign imports, and oil produced offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, as well as the U.S. government’s Strategic Petroleum Reserve, which operates two large storage facilities in Bryan Mound and Big Hill, Texas. Many of Texas’s refineries are sophisticated facilities that use additional refining processes beyond simple distillation to yield a larger quantity of lighter, higher value products, such as gasoline. Because of this downstream capability, Texas refineries often process a wide variety of crude oil types from around the world, including heavier, lower value varieties.

Refineries in the Houston area, including the Baytown refinery, the Nation’s largest refinery, make up the largest refining center in the United States. From Houston, refined product pipelines spread across the country, allowing Texas petroleum products to reach virtually every major consumption market east of the Rocky Mountains. This network includes the Colonial Pipeline system (Koch), which is the largest petroleum product pipeline system in the United States and is vital for supplying markets throughout the South and East Coast.

Texas’s total petroleum consumption is the highest in the Nation, and the State leads the country in consumption of asphalt and road oil, distillate fuel oil, jet fuel, liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), and lubricants. Texas LPG use is greater than the LPG consumption of all other States combined, due primarily to the State’s active petrochemical industry, which is the largest in the United States. Four separate motor gasoline blends are required in Texas to meet the diverse air quality needs of different parts the State, including reformulated motor gasoline blended with ethanol required in the metropolitan areas of Houston and Dallas-Fort Worth. The agriculture-rich Texas Panhandle has several corn- and milo-based ethanol plants that are operational or under construction.

===Natural Gas===
Texas is the Nation’s leading natural gas producer, accounting for more than one-fourth of total U.S. natural gas production. In the early days of Texas oil production, natural gas found with oil was largely considered a nuisance and was often flared (burned off) at the wellhead. Although some Texas cities and towns located near oil fields began using natural gas for energy, it was not until the State banned flaring after World War II that oil producers began to find new markets for natural gas. Two pipelines that once carried crude oil to the East Coast were converted to carry natural gas and a new natural gas pipeline to California was built, setting the stage for strong natural gas production growth in the 1950s and 60s. Texas natural gas production reached its peak in 1972 at more than 9.6 billion cubic feet of annual production. Since then, output has declined steadily to less than three-fifths of that level.

Today, an expansive network of interstate natural gas pipelines extends from Texas, reaching consumption markets from coast to coast, including those in California, the Midwest, the East Coast, and New England. Texas has 10 natural gas market hubs located in both East and West Texas, more than any other State, and its natural gas storage capacity is among the highest in the Nation. Most of Texas’s 34 active storage facilities are depleted oil and gas fields converted for storage use, although many sites have also been developed in salt dome formations. These storage facilities allow Texas to store its natural gas production during the summer when national demand is typically lower and to ramp up delivery quickly during the winter months when markets across the country require greater volumes of natural gas to meet their home heating needs. However, due to the growing use of natural gas for electricity generation in the United States, Texas has occasionally withdrawn natural gas from storage during the summer months to help meet peak electricity demand for air-conditioning use.

Texas consumes more natural gas than any other State and accounts for about one-fifth of total U.S. natural gas consumption. Texas natural gas demand is dominated by the industrial and electric power sectors, which together account for more than four-fifths of State use. Because Texas demand is high, and because the State’s natural gas infrastructure is well connected to consumption markets throughout the country, several companies have proposed building liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminals along the Gulf Coast in Texas.

===Coal, Electricity, and Renewables===
Natural gas-fired power plants typically account for about one-half of the electricity produced in Texas and coal-fired plants account for much of the remaining generation. Although Texas produces a substantial amount of coal from 13 surface mines, including five of the 50 largest in the United States, the State relies on rail deliveries of subbituminous coal from Wyoming for the majority of its supply. Nearly all of the coal mined in Texas is lignite coal, the lowest grade of coal, and all of it is consumed in the State, mostly in arrangements where a single utility operates both the mine and an adjacent coal-fired power plant. Although lower in energy content than other varieties of coal, lignite coal is also low in sulfur, an important consideration in the State’s efforts to lower emissions. Texas consumes more coal than any other State and its emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide are among the highest in the Nation.

Texas is a major nuclear power generating State. Two nuclear plants, Comanche Peak and South Texas Project, typically account for about one-tenth of the State’s electric power production. Until the recent uprating (capacity improvement) of the Number 2 reactor at Palo Verde in Arizona, the two South Texas Project nuclear reactors were the largest in the Nation.

Although renewable energy sources contribute minimally to the Texas power grid, Texas leads the Nation in wind-powered generation capacity, and substantial new wind generation capacity is under construction in Texas. Texas surpassed California as the country’s largest wind energy producer in 2006. Currently, there are over 2,000 wind turbines in West Texas alone, and the numbers continue to increase as development costs continue to drop and wind turbine technology improves. At 736 MW, the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in central Texas is the largest wind power facility in the world.

Texas produces and consumes more electricity than any other State. Despite large net interstate electricity imports in some areas, the Texas Interconnect power grid is largely isolated from the integrated power systems serving the eastern and western United States, and most areas of Texas have little ability to export or import electricity to and from other States. Texas per capita residential use of electricity is significantly higher than the national average, due to high demand for electric air-conditioning during hot summer months and the widespread use of electricity as the primary energy source for home heating during typically mild winter months.

==Education==
The weakness of education in Texas has always (and still is) an important priority. The Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico included the following grievance against the government of Mexico pertaining to education:

<blockquote>''It has failed to establish any public system of education, although possessed of almost boundless resources, (the public domain,) and although it is an axiom in political science, that unless a people are educated and enlightened, it is idle to expect the continuance of civil liberty, or the capacity for self government.''</blockquote>

Even today Texas is in the forefront of education in the country as the [[No Child Left Behind Act|No Child Left Behind( NCLB) Act]] is being implemented. The administration of George W. Bush used Texas as a model for many of the reforms in the NCLB Act because of his previous experiences as governor of Texas.

In 2006 Texas ranked #25 out of 50 states on a composite index of public education.<ref>[http://www.morganquitno.com/edrank.htm See "Which State Is Smartest?" (2007) at]</ref>
Texas ranks:<ref>see Carol Keeton Strayhorn, Texas State Comproller, "Major Challenges Facing Texas Education Today" at [http://www.window.state.tx.us/comptrol/wwstand/wws0512ed/]</ref>
* #49 in verbal SAT scores in the nation (493) and #46 in average math SAT scores (502).
* #36 in the nation in high school graduation rates (68%).
* #33 in the nation in teacher salaries. Teacher salaries in Texas are not keeping pace with the national average. The gains realized from the last state-funded across-the-board pay raise authorized in 1999, which moved the ranking from 33 to as high as 26th in the nation, have disappeared over the last five years.
* Texas was the only state in the nation to cut average per pupil expenditures in fiscal year 2005, resulting in a ranking of #40 nationally; down from #25 in fiscal year 1999.
* #6 in the nation in student growth. The general student population in Texas public schools grew by 11.1% between school years 1999 and 2005, with the largest percent of growth seen among low income and minority children.

===Public Education===
The Texas public education system consists of 1,033 independent and common school districts. There are an additional 190 charter school districts. Public school enrollment has continued to increase at a rapid pace. In the 2000-2001 school year, public school enrollment was at 4,059,619 students. By the 2006-2007 school year, the public school enrollment had increased by over 500,000 students to a mark of 4,594,942 students.
===Higher Education===
The University of Texas System and the Texas A&M System are two of the largest higher education systems in the nation, with numerous branch campuses. [[The University of Texas at Austin]] is the largest institution in the UT System, while Texas A&M is the flagship of the rival system. Thanks to ownership of oil fields, their endowments in 2006 reached $13.2 billion and $5.6 billion. The best endowed private schools were Rice University in Houston with $4.0 billion, Southern Methodist University in Dallas ($1.1 billion); Baylor College of Medicine ($1.0 billion), and Texas Christian University in Ft. Worth ($1.0 billion).

The state of Texas is home of many notable institutions of higher learning.

* [[Baylor University]]
* [[Rice University]]
* [[Texas A and M University|Texas A&M]]
* [[University of Texas at Austin]]

==Notable Texans==
[[Image:Texascapbuilding.JPG‎ |thumb|350px|The Texas capitol building in [[Austin]]]]
*[[Lance Armstrong]], who holds the record for most consecutive [[Tour de France]] victories, was born in Plano.
*[[George W. Bush]], 43rd President of the United States, former Governor of Texas.
*[[Pat Garrett]], the policeman who shot [[Billy the Kid]], lived in multiple locations in Texas.
*[[Sam Houston]] was the president of Texas when it was an independent nation, and lent his name to Texas's largest city.
*[[Howard Hughes]], the reclusive billionaire who was the subject of the movie ''The Aviator'', was born in Humble.
*[[Lyndon B. Johnson]], former president, lived and died in Stonewall.
*[[Ted Nugent]], controversial conservative musician, lives near Crawford.
*[[Ross Perot]], former presidential candidate, lives in Dallas
*[[Stevie Ray Vaughn]], musician.
*[[Claudia Johnson "Lady Bird Johnson"]], Born December 22, 1912. Lady Bird Johnson was the wife of President Lyndon B. Johnson. She is also known for her involvement in improving the physical conditions along the nations highways.
*Steve Austin, professional wrestler better known as Stone Cold Steve Austin
*Michael Hickenbotton, professional wrestler better known as Shawn Michaels
*Mark Calaway, professional wrestler known as The Undertaker
*Mark Henry, weightlifter and professional wrestler

==See also==
* [[Dallas]]
* [[History of Texas]]

==Bibliography - Further Reading==
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/ The Handbook of Texas Online] ''- Published by the Texas State Historical Association'' thousands of scholarly articles on every aspect of Texas history
* [http://www.texasalmanac.com/ ''texas Almanac'' annual compendium of statistics]
* Bailey, Alvin R., Jr. and Light Townsend Cummins, eds. ''A Guide to the History of Texas.'' 1988. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71910759 online edition]
* Campbell, Randolph B. ''Gone to Texas: a History of the Lone Star State'' (Oxford University Press, 2003, 500 pages), standard scholarly survey [http://www.amazon.com/Gone-Texas-History-Lone-State/dp/0195138430/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103945805 complete online edition]
* Fehrenbach, T. R. ''Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans '' (2007), popular survey [http://www.amazon.com/Lone-Star-T-R-Fehrenbach/dp/1579125379/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McDonald, Archie P. ''Texas: A Compact History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Texas-Compact-Archie-P-McDonald/dp/193333715X/ref=pd_bbs_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190683778&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
*Wooster, Ralph A. and Robert A. Calvert, eds. ''Texas Vistas'' (1987) reprinted scholarly essays

==External links==
* [https://www.texas.gov/ Official State of Texas website]
* [http://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/48,54,00 Demographic profile] on [[U.S. Census Bureau]] official website
* [https://www.tshaonline.org/home/ Texas State Historical Association]
* [http://www.city-data.com/city/Texas.html Texas Cities] on [[City-data.com]]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}

[[Category:Texas| ]]

Line

2016-11-29T04:22:50Z

ATexan:

The '''line''' is a basic [[geometry|geometric]] [[shape]]. It is a straight, [[breadth]]less figure that extends to [[infinity]] in both directions and consists of infinitely many points strung all in a row with no spaces or breaks.

A line that can be drawn on paper is not actually a line, but a representation of a line since it does not extend infinitely in both directions. Two [[point]]s determine a (unique) line which goes through them. A line can be broken down into finite [[line segment]]s.

Common mathematical representations of a line include:

In two dimensions in the [[Cartesian plane]]:
*Standard Form: ax + by + c = 0
*Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + b (where m is the [[slope]] of the line, b is the [[y-intercept]])
*Point-Slope Form: (y - y0) = m(x - x0) (where m is the slope and (x0, y0) is a point on the line)
*Two Points Form: <math>(y - y_1) = \frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}(x - x_1)</math> (where <math>(x_1,y_1)</math> and <math>(x_2,y_2)</math> are two different points on the line)

In n dimensions in [[Cartesian coordinates]]:
*Parametrized Vector Form: r(t) = <x0, y0,...> + t<x, y,...>

==Philosophical nature of the line==

The line is such an intuitive concept that most mathematicians think it escapes a formal, rigorous, and general definition. The definition above is unsatisfactory because adjectives such as "straight" are usually defined in terms of resembling lines. Other such intuitive concepts without rigorous definitions are the [[point]], the [[plane]], the [[set]], [[symmetry]], and [[infinity]].

Attempts at providing a rigorous, abstract definition usually face philosophical [[paradox]]es, such as [[Euclid]]'s contention that lines are objects with "breadthless length." In other words, he asserted that a line in infinitely long, but has no width. Lines can also be considered as points strung together, or as curves with infinite [[radius]] of [[curvature]], yet both these definitions have philosophical flaws as well.
Airports
See also: List of airports in Texas
Texas has 730 airports, second most of any state in the nation. Largest in Texas by size and passengers served, Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) is the second largest by area in the United States, and fourth in the world with 18,076 acres (73.15 km2).[298] In traffic, DFW is the busiest in the state, the fourth busiest in the United States,[299] and sixth worldwide.[300] American Airlines Group's American / American Eagle, the world's largest airline in total passengers-miles transported and passenger fleet size,[301] uses DFW as its largest and main hub. Southwest Airlines, headquartered in Dallas, has its operations at Dallas Love Field.[302] It ranks as the largest airline in the United States by number of passengers carried domestically per year and the largest airline in the world by number of passengers carried.[303]
Texas's second-largest air facility is Houston's George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH). It served as the largest hub for the former Continental Airlines, which was based in Houston; it serves as the largest hub for United Airlines, the world's third-largest airline, by passenger-miles flown.[304][305] IAH offers service to the most Mexican destinations of any U.S. airport.[306][307] The next five largest airports in the state all serve over 3 million passengers annually; they include Austin-Bergstrom International Airport, William P. Hobby Airport, San Antonio International Airport, Dallas Love Field and El Paso International Airport. The smallest airport in the state to be designated an international airport is Del Rio International Airport.
[[Category:Geometry]]

Pioneer anomaly

2016-11-29T04:20:15Z

ATexan:

[[File:Dn11304-1 600.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Trajectories of the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft. (The Pioneer anomaly is much too small to be noticeable at this scale.)]]
The '''Pioneer anomaly''' refers to deviations from projected courses for several spacecraft sent to the outer solar system. The data sent back from both Pioneer spacecraft, Galileo, and Ulysses, represent one of the first meaningful tests of the precision of gravitation predictions over long distances. The spacecraft have deviated from the courses which scientists predicted using [[general relativity]], as well as [[Law of Universal Gravitation|Newtonian mechanics]], indicating that both theories may be fundamentally flawed.

==Discovery==
[[Pioneer 10]] and [[Pioneer 11]] were space probes sent to study the planets [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]]. After following a [[hyperbolic]] trajectory around these planets, they had reached [[escape velocity]] for the solar system and were flying out. While their main mission was now ended, NASA stayed in radio contact with the craft to study the outskirts of the solar system.<ref name="Nieto">Michael Martin Nieto and John D Anderson. "[http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0264-9381/22/24/008 Using Early Data to Illuminate the Pioneer Anomaly]". ''Classical and Quantum Gravity'', 2005</ref>

Around the time of Pioneer 11's flyby of Saturn, it was found to be slightly off-course. (Every spacecraft sent to the outer solar system is intended to follow a specific course, predicted by the theory of [[general relativity]]. Radio transmissions and radar are used to track spacecraft to ensure that they stay on course.) While this in itself was within the range of error, astronomers continued tracking the craft to find that the anomalous sunward acceleration increased. Currently, [[Pioneer 10]] and [[Pioneer 11]] are respectively over 30 and 70 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the sun, the farthest any spacecraft has gone in near-free-fall. By using [[Doppler effect|Doppler radar]], scientists have found that the courses for both the Pioneer spacecraft show a constant acceleration towards the sun of <math>8.74 \times 10^{-10}\,\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s^2} \ </math> beyond theoretical preditions.<ref name="Nieto" />

Although the [[Galileo Project|Galileo]] and Ulysses spacecraft showed some unexpected sunward acceleration, other unpredictable factors, such as the [[Yarkovsky effect]] and the thrust caused by radioactive material on board, prohibit any accurate measurement of the effect on these two spacecraft. The confounding effects are even more significant on the Voyager spacecraft, preventing even a discussion of whether the Pioneer Anomaly affects these craft at all.

The Pioneer anomaly is about 1000 times bigger than the two effects contributing to the difference between the acceleration predicted by general relativity and that predicted by classical (Newtonian) gravity. The effect of the increase in inertia due to the Lorentz transform is less than <math>10^{-12}\, \mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s^2} \ </math>, and the difference in acceleration due to the Schwarzschild metric is also less than <math>10^{-12}\, \mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s^2} \ </math>.

==Explanations==
Originally, scientists supposed that the Pioneer navigation code was in error. However, the code was verified by an independent team. After a rigorous search for all possible effects, the anomaly was determined to be real: the course actually does diverge from models.<ref name="Nieto" />

Several possible explanations, some flawed, have been proposed for this effect:

In 2010, [[Creation science|creation scientist]] Dr. D. Russell Humphreys wrote regarding his explanation for the Pioneer anomaly:
{{cquote|The only non-standard assumption I used was that the matter of the cosmos is limited in extent, with a fair amount of empty space beyond the matter—an assumption supported by the [[Bible]]. With those relatively modest beginnings, I was able to explain the Pioneer anomaly — it’s due to a change in the ‘fabric’ of space. In fact, this anomaly could be the first local manifestation we have observed of the expansion of the cosmos, and the first evidence that expansion is occurring in the present, not just the past.
exas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old.
These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time.
This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains–Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas–Waco—Austin–San Antonio trend.
The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic, but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form. Today 9 to 12 miles (14 to 19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.[21]
East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer.[22] Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.[23]
The assumption I used violently contradicts the foundational assumption of the [[Big Bang theory|big bang]], which says the universe has no centre and no edge. In that model, the fabric of space would not change. Consequently, the big bang model has been unable to explain the anomalous Pioneer acceleration.<ref>[http://creation.com/pioneer-anomaly Pioneer anomaly]</ref>}}

Other explanations offered:

* The anomalous acceleration could be due to the spacecraft venting energy in certain directions.<ref>http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/breaking/2008/04/13/pioneer-spacecraft-a-step-closer-to-being-boring/</ref> However, such effects would be expected to be more significant earlier on, when the power sources were less degraded.<ref name="Nieto" /> The opposite was actually the case.
* Drag forces from the particles in space, analogous to air resistance, could be slowing the spacecraft down. While the average concentration of the particles is not high enough to produce the observed acceleration, the Pioneer spacecraft could conceivably have picked up an electric charge which could be attracting the particles.<ref>William F. Hall. "[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physletb.2007.01.006 Can charge drag explain the Pioneer anomaly?]" ''Physics Letters B'', 1 March 2007</ref>
* The theory of [[General Relativity]] and the [[Law of Universal Gravitation]] could be wrong; the gravitational force could be slightly stronger than predicted. In this context, it is important to note that other spacecraft flying in hyperbolic trajectories around celestial bodies have also experienced anomalous gravitational effects.
* There could be gravitational forces from other celestial bodies that have not been taken into account.
* A March 2011 paper claims that the anomaly is caused by heat radiation.[http://www.technologyreview.com/blog/arxiv/26589/]
* A Sept. 2011 paper claims that the anomaly has been shrinking, but is still a mystery.[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/333/6047/1208.short]

== External links ==
*[http://creation.com/pioneer-anomaly Pioneer anomaly] by [[Creation Ministries International]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Relativity}}