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Radioactivity

2009-12-14T22:46:17Z

AParadis: added link to previous article on half-life

'''Radioactivity''' is the emission of high [[energy]] [[particles]] through the natural phenomenon of the decay of unstable [[isotopes]] of [[chemical elements]] into more stable forms, which are called ''daughter products.'' This type of emission is generally called nuclear radiation.

The most common types of nuclear radiation are alpha and beta radiation, and the processes for each are respectively alpha decay and beta decay.<ref>http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html</ref> There can also be gamma radiation associated with a nuclear decay. Alpha particles are [[helium]] nuclii (two protons and two neutrons); beta particles are high-energy [[electron]]s; gamma rays are high-energy [[photon]]s. Alpha particles can normally be stopped by a sheet of paper, and beta particles can normally be stopped by healthy human skin, but gamma rays can penetrate one's body to cause great harm. Gamma radiation is also a form of electro-magnetic radiation, like X-rays or visible light.

All forms of nuclear decay follow the fundamental rules of mass and energy balance.

==Alpha Decay==
As stated above, an alpha particle is the nucleus of a Helium atom, i.e., two protons and two neutrons. This arrangement means the alpha particle has a charge of +2, and an atomic mass of 4, the symbol for which is <math>{{}_2^4}He^{+2}</math>.

For example, the most common [[isotope]] of Uranium is Uranium-238. Since all Uranium atoms have 92 protons, the remaining mass is composed of neutrons (238 - 92 = 146 neutrons). The neutron/proton ration is therefore 146 / 92 = 1.59. The initial step in Uranium-238 decaying (eventually) into Lead-206 is an alpha decay:

<center><math>{{}_{92}^{238}}U </math> → <math>{{}_2^4}He + {{}_{90}^{234}}Th</math></center>

Note that the particle count is conserved, meaning on the left there are 92 protons, and on the right there are 2 + 90 = 92 protons as well. Likewise, the atomic masses are balanced, since on the left the total is 238, and on the right the total is 4 + 234 = 238.

However, from just this equation, it is difficult to understand how energy is balanced, too. Because this is a naturally occurring decay, we expect that the energy contained within the alpha particle and the Thorium atom will be less than the energy contained within the Uranium atom (because of the law of Entropy). So, where is that extra energy? We find the "missing" energy in the kinetic energies of the daughter products. This means that the alpha particle may be ejected from the original atom with significant speed (since kinetic energy is the energy of motion). The energy released by this decay is 4.3 MeV.

==Beta Decay==
As stated above, a beta particle is an electron. This arrangement means the beta particle has a charge of -1, and an atomic mass of 0, the symbol for which is <math>{{}_{-1}^0}e^{-1}</math>.

Strontium-90 undergoes beta decay to form Yttrium-90 in the following decay reaction:

<center><math>{{}_{38}^{90}}U </math> → <math>{{}_{-1}^0}e + {{}_{39}^{90}}Y</math></center>

As with the alpha decay, notice that the particle count is again conserved. The energy released by this decay is 0.55 MeV.

An interesting note about Strontium-90 is that is is a synthetic isotope (meaning, it is not found naturally occurring, but must be manufactured) that is a by-product of nuclear weapons explosions. In the 1950s and 1960s, it was common to test nuclear weapons by exploding them in the very high upper atmosphere. Unfortunately, this resulted in a large amount of Strontium-90 particles that eventually settled back to earth, contaminating grass lands. The grasses were eaten by cattle, and the cattle were eaten by humans.

Since Strontium is chemically very similar to Calcium (it is in the same column in the Periodic Table), any entrance of Strontium in the body will tend to replace the Calcium in our bones. In the case of Strontium-90, this meant that radioactive Strontium was now chemically bonded to our bones, and the 1970s saw a rise in bone cancer as a result. Fortunately, this type of testing was halted, and the [[half-life]] of Strontium-90 is a relatively short 28 years, meaning, at this point most of the synthetic, radioactive Strontium-90 produced by weapons testing has decayed out of the environment.

==Energy of Radioactive Decay==
The energies associated with radioactive decay, at least on the single atom level, are very, very small. The energies are so small, in fact, we use a special unit called the Electron Volt (eV) rather than the tradition units of Joules or Btu or Foot-pounds.

Just for a point of comparison, it takes about a minute to boil a cup of water in a 1000 Watt microwave. One Watt is equivalent to one Joule per second, so it takes 60,000 Joules of energy to boil a cup of water. But a single Joule of energy is the same as 6.24x1018 eV!

So even when a nuclear decay has an associated energy in the thousands (keV) or millions (MeV) of electron volts, we're still billions of factors away from having enough energy to boil a cup of water. The danger is not from a single atomic decay, but from many trillions of atomic decays occurring within rapid succession, in which case we do reach energies capable of producing serious burns on the skin.

==Analogy to disease==
In [[H. G. Wells]]' 1909 novel [[Tono-Bungay]], the narrator muses:
:To my mind radio-activity is a real disease of matter. Moreover, it is a contagious disease. It spreads. You bring those debased and crumbling atoms near others and those too presently catch the trick of swinging themselves out of coherent existence. It is in matter exactly what the decay of our old culture is in society, a loss of traditions and distinctions and assured reactions. ...I am haunted by a grotesque fancy of the ultimate eating away and dry-rotting and dispersal of all our world. So that while man still struggles and dreams his very substance will change and crumble from beneath him. I mention this here as a queer persistent fancy. Suppose, indeed, that is to be the end of our planet; no splendid climax and finale, no towering accumulation of achievements, but just—atomic decay!<ref>Wells, H. G. (1909) [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/718/718-h/718-h.htm Tono-Bungay], online Project Gutenberg text; search for text string "real disease"</ref>

==Notes and references==
<references/>

[[Category:Radioactivity]]

Radioactivity

2009-12-14T22:44:09Z

AParadis: Added discussion on Beta decay

'''Radioactivity''' is the emission of high [[energy]] [[particles]] through the natural phenomenon of the decay of unstable [[isotopes]] of [[chemical elements]] into more stable forms, which are called ''daughter products.'' This type of emission is generally called nuclear radiation.

The most common types of nuclear radiation are alpha and beta radiation, and the processes for each are respectively alpha decay and beta decay.<ref>http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html</ref> There can also be gamma radiation associated with a nuclear decay. Alpha particles are [[helium]] nuclii (two protons and two neutrons); beta particles are high-energy [[electron]]s; gamma rays are high-energy [[photon]]s. Alpha particles can normally be stopped by a sheet of paper, and beta particles can normally be stopped by healthy human skin, but gamma rays can penetrate one's body to cause great harm. Gamma radiation is also a form of electro-magnetic radiation, like X-rays or visible light.

All forms of nuclear decay follow the fundamental rules of mass and energy balance.

==Alpha Decay==
As stated above, an alpha particle is the nucleus of a Helium atom, i.e., two protons and two neutrons. This arrangement means the alpha particle has a charge of +2, and an atomic mass of 4, the symbol for which is <math>{{}_2^4}He^{+2}</math>.

For example, the most common [[isotope]] of Uranium is Uranium-238. Since all Uranium atoms have 92 protons, the remaining mass is composed of neutrons (238 - 92 = 146 neutrons). The neutron/proton ration is therefore 146 / 92 = 1.59. The initial step in Uranium-238 decaying (eventually) into Lead-206 is an alpha decay:

<center><math>{{}_{92}^{238}}U </math> → <math>{{}_2^4}He + {{}_{90}^{234}}Th</math></center>

Note that the particle count is conserved, meaning on the left there are 92 protons, and on the right there are 2 + 90 = 92 protons as well. Likewise, the atomic masses are balanced, since on the left the total is 238, and on the right the total is 4 + 234 = 238.

However, from just this equation, it is difficult to understand how energy is balanced, too. Because this is a naturally occurring decay, we expect that the energy contained within the alpha particle and the Thorium atom will be less than the energy contained within the Uranium atom (because of the law of Entropy). So, where is that extra energy? We find the "missing" energy in the kinetic energies of the daughter products. This means that the alpha particle may be ejected from the original atom with significant speed (since kinetic energy is the energy of motion). The energy released by this decay is 4.3 MeV.

==Beta Decay==
As stated above, a beta particle is an electron. This arrangement means the beta particle has a charge of -1, and an atomic mass of 0, the symbol for which is <math>{{}_{-1}^0}e^{-1}</math>.

Strontium-90 undergoes beta decay to form Yttrium-90 in the following decay reaction:

<center><math>{{}_{38}^{90}}U </math> → <math>{{}_{-1}^0}e + {{}_{39}^{90}}Y</math></center>

As with the alpha decay, notice that the particle count is again conserved. The energy released by this decay is 0.55 MeV.

An interesting note about Strontium-90 is that is is a synthetic isotope (meaning, it is not found naturally occurring, but must be manufactured) that is a by-product of nuclear weapons explosions. In the 1950s and 1960s, it was common to test nuclear weapons by exploding them in the very high upper atmosphere. Unfortunately, this resulted in a large amount of Strontium-90 particles that eventually settled back to earth, contaminating grass lands. The grasses were eaten by cattle, and the cattle were eaten by humans.

Since Strontium is chemically very similar to Calcium (it is in the same column in the Periodic Table), any entrance of Strontium in the body will tend to replace the Calcium in our bones. In the case of Strontium-90, this meant that radioactive Strontium was now chemically bonded to our bones, and the 1970s saw a rise in bone cancer as a result. Fortunately, this type of testing was halted, and the half-life of Strontium-90 is a relatively short 28 years, meaning, at this point most of the synthetic, radioactive Strontium-90 produced by weapons testing has decayed out of the environment.

==Energy of Radioactive Decay==
The energies associated with radioactive decay, at least on the single atom level, are very, very small. The energies are so small, in fact, we use a special unit called the Electron Volt (eV) rather than the tradition units of Joules or Btu or Foot-pounds.

Just for a point of comparison, it takes about a minute to boil a cup of water in a 1000 Watt microwave. One Watt is equivalent to one Joule per second, so it takes 60,000 Joules of energy to boil a cup of water. But a single Joule of energy is the same as 6.24x1018 eV!

So even when a nuclear decay has an associated energy in the thousands (keV) or millions (MeV) of electron volts, we're still billions of factors away from having enough energy to boil a cup of water. The danger is not from a single atomic decay, but from many trillions of atomic decays occurring within rapid succession, in which case we do reach energies capable of producing serious burns on the skin.

==Analogy to disease==
In [[H. G. Wells]]' 1909 novel [[Tono-Bungay]], the narrator muses:
:To my mind radio-activity is a real disease of matter. Moreover, it is a contagious disease. It spreads. You bring those debased and crumbling atoms near others and those too presently catch the trick of swinging themselves out of coherent existence. It is in matter exactly what the decay of our old culture is in society, a loss of traditions and distinctions and assured reactions. ...I am haunted by a grotesque fancy of the ultimate eating away and dry-rotting and dispersal of all our world. So that while man still struggles and dreams his very substance will change and crumble from beneath him. I mention this here as a queer persistent fancy. Suppose, indeed, that is to be the end of our planet; no splendid climax and finale, no towering accumulation of achievements, but just—atomic decay!<ref>Wells, H. G. (1909) [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/718/718-h/718-h.htm Tono-Bungay], online Project Gutenberg text; search for text string "real disease"</ref>

==Notes and references==
<references/>

[[Category:Radioactivity]]

Radioactivity

2009-12-14T22:01:39Z

AParadis: Clarified discussion on excess energy in alpha decay

Radioactivity

2009-12-13T17:47:05Z

AParadis: Added discussion on Alpha decay

Taoism

2009-12-09T19:12:01Z

AParadis: Added further description of the book Tao Te Ching and used an excerpt from a free translation.

[[Image:Yin_yang.jpg|thumb|500px|right|Taoism is often represented by the [[Taijitu]]]]
Taoism is a [[Chinese]] philosophy centered around the concept of Tao. It stresses the unification of contraries. Taoism also seeks harmony with nature.

The primary text of Taoism is [[Lao Tzu]]'s ''Tao Te Ching'', which works to express the essence of Tao. The book stresses the ineffability of the Tao, and is the second most translated book after Christianity's Holy Bible.<ref> Center of Traditional Taoist Studies, www.tao.org/tao.html</ref>

The Tao Te Ching is composed of 81 poems, each of which focuses on either an aspect of Tao or an aspect of being an effective leader.

<blockquote>
8. 
"Doing the right thing" is like water. 
It's good for all living things, and flows without thinking about where it's going
 
...just like Tao.
 
-- excerpted from Ron Hogan's translation<ref>www.beatrice.com/wordpress/tao-te-ching</ref>
</blockquote>

:''Taoist ethics are concerned less with doing good acts than becoming a good person who lives in harmony with all things and people.''

Because of this, devoted Taoists tend to be nice and accomodating people.

Nonetheless, it is important to distinguish between Taoism as a [[philosophy]](as described above) and Taosim as a [[religion]]. Taoist religious practices include numerous occult rituals including 'internal alchemy'-the ingestion of minerals and herbs to supposedly restore balance to one's Yin and Yang energies-and the invocation of various pagan deities. The ideal of the Taoist 'Sage' is one who removes themselves completely from society and no longer serves to further the well-being of mankind. As such religious Taoism shares many of the dangerous traits of other primitive faiths and lacks the spiritual substance of the Abrahamic traditions.

Taoism originated in [[China]]. Accurate figures for the number of believers of Taoism are elusive, for two reasons. Firstly, Taoism is a loosely defined faith, so some people don't even realize they're practicing it. Secondly, the [[Communist]] Chinese government does not record most religions in its [[census]]es, on account of the government's anti-religious stance. However, Taoism is one of the five religions officially recognized by the Chinese government, the others being Protestant Christianity, Catholicism, Buddhism, and Islam.<ref> South China Morning Post, April 30, 2007, www.scmp.com</ref>

== External links ==

*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/taoethics/ethics_1.shtml Taoist ethics - theory and practice]

== See Also ==

*[[Confucianism]]
*[[Zen]]
*[[Falun Gong]]
*[[New_Age| New Age Spirituality]]
*[[Feng Shui]]
*[[World History Lecture Three]]
*[[Tai Chi]]

[[Category:Taoism]]